5d. Latin Accidence and Syntax - Syntax — OCR A-Level Latin

Latin nouns change ending to show their role in the sentence, and the standard patterns of case usage link each case to a function. The nominative marks the subject and the complement of a linking verb; the accusative marks the direct object and the extent of motion or time; the genitive marks possession and other close relationships; the dative marks the indirect object and the person interested or benefited; the ablative marks means, manner, accompaniment, separation and place where, often with a preposition; the vocative marks address. Identify the function from the ending and from the verb, not from word order, since Latin frees order for emphasis. A noun's case, its number and the verb's agreement together confirm which pattern applies.

Negation in Latin is built from a small set of negative particles and adverbs, chiefly non, haud, ne and the negative conjunctions neque (nec) and neu (neve). Learn what each one negates and how it combines with other words. A single negative normally negates the whole clause: non venit means 'he did not come'. Two negatives in one clause usually cancel to a positive by litotes, so non nemo means 'someone' and nemo non means 'everyone'. Do not treat them as reinforcing each other. Distinguish a true double negative from a negative word followed by an indefinite pronoun: in neque quisquam, neque is the negative conjunction 'and not' and quisquam is the indefinite 'anyone', so the pair means 'and no one' rather than a reinforcing double negative. Note also that ne introduces prohibitions and purpose or wish clauses, while non is the ordinary negator of statements.

Latin marks mood by function. A direct statement uses the indicative, as in Romulus urbem condidit. A direct question uses the indicative when it asks about fact, as in Quid facis?, but a deliberative question, where the speaker ponders what should be done, uses the present or imperfect subjunctive, as in Quid faciam? A command uses the imperative for a positive order, as in Veni, and for a prohibition standardly uses ne with the perfect subjunctive, as in Ne ieris, where ieris is perfect subjunctive (the present subjunctive is eas). Distinguish deliberative questions from simple factual questions by the subjunctive and by the sense of deliberation, and distinguish commands from statements by the imperative or prohibitive construction.

This topic covers three uses of the subjunctive in independent clauses. A prohibition forbids an action, most often with nē plus the perfect subjunctive (nē fēceris, 'do not do it') or, in older or poetic style, nē with the present subjunctive; the imperative nōlī/nōlīte plus infinitive is a further way to forbid. An exhortation urges a course of action, normally with the present subjunctive, usually first person plural (eāmus, 'let us go'), and negative exhortations use nē. A wish is expressed by the present subjunctive for what may still happen (vīvat, 'may he live'), while the imperfect subjunctive marks an unfulfilled wish about the present and the pluperfect an unfulfilled wish about the past (utinam vēnisset, 'if only he had come'). Latin has no future subjunctive, so future wishes use the present subjunctive. The particle utinam often introduces wishes.

The infinitive has several distinct uses. As subject it names the action that a verb or impersonal expression evaluates, as in errāre est hūmānum, 'to err is human'. As complement it completes a copular verb, forming the predicate, as in vidēre est crēdere, 'to see is to believe'. The prolative infinitive completes the meaning of another verb, especially verbs of ability, wish or beginning such as possum, volō and incipiō (possum venīre, 'I am able to come'). The historic infinitive replaces an imperfect or perfect indicative in vivid narrative, often in a series (currere, 'they ran'). Note that verbs of commanding such as iubeō take the accusative and infinitive (iubeō tē venīre), which is a separate construction, not the prolative use.

A participle is a verbal adjective: it shares the tense and voice of a verb while agreeing with a noun in case, number and gender. Learn to name its use from the grammar of the sentence. A present participle (portans, portantis) is active and describes action happening at the same time as the main verb. A perfect passive participle (portatus, -a, -um) describes something already done to its noun. A future active participle (portaturus) expresses intention. A participle may stand attributively, simply describing its noun (vir fortiter pugnans, the man fighting bravely), or be part of an ablative absolute, where a noun and participle both sit in the ablative and form a phrase grammatically separate from the main clause (his rebus gestis, these things having been done).

The subjunctive is a mood, not a tense: it signals how the speaker presents an action rather than stating it as plain fact. Learn to recognise the form, then read the context to name the use. A potential subjunctive presents something as possible rather than actual, often with a negative or a hedging word (forsitan, perhaps; vix, scarcely). A generic subjunctive describes a typical or repeated kind of person or action, as in a generalising relative clause. Other common uses include purpose clauses, result clauses, indirect commands and indirect questions, each signalled by conjunctions such as ut, ne, cum or an interrogative word. Work through three steps: identify the subjunctive form, find the clause type from its introductory word, then name the use that fits the sense.

Latin expresses comparison in two main ways. With quam, both items take the same case as the comparison requires: Marcus est altior quam Quintus (nominative with nominative), or amo Marcum magis quam Quintum (accusative with accusative). With the ablative of comparison, the second item stands in the ablative and quam is omitted: Marcus est altior Quinto. The ablative of comparison is regularly available when the first item is nominative or accusative, so amo Marcum magis Quinto is acceptable. It is avoided where the ablative would be ambiguous, for example when the first item is already ablative or when the second item is a pronoun whose ablative could be misread. Comparatives (altior, magis) and words such as plus, minus and malle trigger comparison. Choose the construction that keeps the case of each item clear.

The gerund is a verbal noun, active in sense, and declines only in the oblique cases: genitive amandi, dative amando, accusative amandum, ablative amando. It names the activity itself, as in ars amandi, the art of loving. The gerundive is a passive verbal adjective in -ndus, -nda, -ndum agreeing with its noun, as in liber amandus, a book to be loved. The gerundive of obligation expresses necessity or duty, usually with esse and a dative of agent: liber mihi amandus est, the book must be loved by me. When a gerund would take a direct object, idiomatic Latin often uses the gerundive construction instead, so ad libros amandos rather than a bare accusative gerund with object. Distinguish gerund from gerundive by asking whether the form is a noun naming an activity or an adjective agreeing with a noun.

Both quominus and quin introduce a subordinate clause after expressions that block or question an outcome. Use quominus (literally 'by which the less') after verbs and phrases of preventing, hindering and refusing, for example impedio, prohibeo, deterreo and recuso, where the clause states what is prevented: 'they prevented him from leaving'. Use quin (literally 'by which not') after expressions that are negative or virtually negative, such as non dubito, nemo dubitat, non multum abest and vix, where the clause states the outcome that does follow: 'there is no doubt that he will come'. The key test is the main clause: a plain affirmative verb of preventing takes quominus, while quin needs a negative or virtually negative main clause. Affirmative doubt takes an indirect question with num or an, not quin.

Dum and dummodo can both introduce a conditional clause meaning 'provided that', and in that use the verb is subjunctive. The sense is restrictive: the speaker states a condition that must hold, as in oderint dum metuant, 'let them hate, provided that they fear'. Dummodo makes the conditional force explicit, and it is often reinforced by modo or tantum, as in dummodo ne veniat, 'provided only that he does not come'. Distinguish this from dum meaning 'while', which normally takes the present indicative, and from dum meaning 'until', which takes the indicative or, in reported or anticipated situations, the subjunctive. A reliable method is to test whether 'provided that' fits the sense; if it does, expect the subjunctive.