The self — Edexcel GCSE Psychology

The self-concept encompasses how individuals perceive themselves. Lewis (1990) divided this into the existential self (the realisation that one is a distinct, continuous entity) and the categorical self (defining oneself by properties like age or gender). Rogers (1959) expanded this within humanistic psychology, identifying three components: self-image (how we see ourselves), self-esteem (our self-worth), and the ideal self (who we wish to be). Rogers argued that achieving self-actualisation requires congruence, where the self-image and ideal self closely align. Incongruence occurs when there is a significant gap between them, often leading to psychological distress.

Erikson (1959) proposed that identity develops through eight psychosocial stages across the lifespan, each presenting a crisis to resolve. For example, adolescents face 'identity versus role confusion', where success leads to a strong sense of self. A strength is its lifespan approach; a weakness is its lack of empirical evidence. Baumeister (2008) explored the consequences of believing in free will, suggesting it promotes prosocial behaviour and personal accountability. When people believe they control their actions, they are more likely to help others and less likely to cheat. A strength is its application to improving societal behaviour, but a weakness is the difficulty in objectively measuring free will.

The Humanistic Theory of Self focuses on personal growth and self-esteem. Rogers (1951) explained personality development through the self-concept. Unconditional positive regard (love without conditions) fosters healthy self-esteem, whereas conditional positive regard creates conditions of worth, where individuals feel they must meet expectations to be valued. Congruence occurs when the ideal self aligns with the actual self, leading to well-being. Incongruence causes distress. Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualisation. Strengths include the positive focus on free will; weaknesses include the lack of objective measurement and potential cultural bias towards individualistic societies.

The development of the self and self-esteem is shaped by internal and external influences. Internal influences include temperament, which refers to innate, biologically based traits we are born with, such as being naturally outgoing. A child with an easy temperament often receives positive reactions, boosting self-esteem. External influences involve our life experiences and interactions. For example, a student who experiences repeated success or receives consistent praise is likely to develop higher self-esteem than someone facing frequent criticism. Understanding both factors is crucial because they interact; an individual's innate temperament can significantly affect how they interpret and respond to their external experiences.

Psychologists measure personality using various methods, primarily through personality scales and personality types. Personality scales measure traits on a continuum. For example, an individual might score anywhere along a scale from highly introverted to highly extroverted, providing a nuanced profile of their traits. In contrast, personality types categorise individuals into distinct groups based on shared characteristics, such as Type A (competitive) or Type B (relaxed). While scales offer detailed, quantitative data about the degree to which a person possesses certain traits, type theories provide a broader, categorical approach that is easier to apply but may oversimplify complex human behaviour by forcing people into rigid boxes.

Trait theory measures personality by identifying stable characteristics that influence behaviour. Allport (1936) categorised traits into three levels: cardinal traits (rare, dominant traits defining a person's whole life), central traits (general characteristics forming the personality foundation), and secondary traits (preferences appearing only in specific situations). Cattell (1946) reduced thousands of traits to 16 core factors, developing the 16PF questionnaire to assess them quantitatively. Strengths include its objective approach and practical application in psychometric testing. Weaknesses include failing to account for situational factors and relying on self-report methods, which risk bias.