Ethics and religion: The application of natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics — AQA A-Level Religious Studies
Ethics and religion: The application of natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics explained
Ethics and religion: The application of natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics covers 10 specification points, including Issues of human life and death: and embryo research; cloning; ‘designer’ babies.
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Open a point below for its explanation and revision guidance.
Issues of human life and death:
This heading introduces the applied topics in which you use natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to address issues of human life and death. Read it as a signpost, not as a self-contained claim: the substance lies in the issues listed under it in the specification, such as abortion, euthanasia and capital punishment, and in the requirement to apply all three theories to them. As you read, build a grid with the issues down one side and the three theories across the top, and note for each cell what the theory would say and why. Track the distinctive reasoning of each theory: natural moral law through primary and secondary precepts, situation ethics through agape and the rejection of legalism, virtue ethics through character, flourishing and the virtues. Note where the theories converge and where they conflict, and record the evaluative questions each application raises.
embryo research; cloning; ‘designer’ babies
This topic asks you to apply three ethical theories to reproductive biotechnology: embryo research, cloning and so-called 'designer' babies. Take each issue in turn. For natural moral law, identify the primary precept at stake (preservation of life, reproduction, care of offspring), then judge the act by its object, intention and circumstances, and ask whether it fits the God-given design of procreation within a family. For situation ethics, ask whether the most loving outcome in the concrete situation justifies departing from a rule, weighing the person-centred consequences. For virtue ethics, ask what a person of practical wisdom and compassion would choose, and what character traits the practice cultivates. Reach a reasoned judgement rather than listing views.
abortion
This topic asks you to apply three ethical theories to abortion. Work through each theory's method. For natural moral law, identify the primary precept at stake (preservation of innocent life, reproduction), then judge the act by its object, intention and circumstances, and consider whether the act fits the God-given design of life. For situation ethics, ask whether the most loving, person-centred outcome in the concrete situation justifies departing from a general rule, weighing the consequences for those involved. For virtue ethics, ask what a person of practical wisdom and compassion would choose and which character traits the decision reflects or cultivates. Compare the verdicts and reach a reasoned judgement rather than listing views.
voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide
This topic asks you to apply three ethical theories to two related but distinct practices. Voluntary euthanasia is the intentional ending of a person's life by another, at that person's competent and persistent request, to relieve suffering. Assisted suicide is the act of helping someone to end their own life, for example by supplying information or means, where the person takes the final action. Keep the two apart: the moral agent and the final act differ. Apply natural moral law through its primary precepts, especially preserving life, and through secondary precepts and the doctrine of double effect. Apply situation ethics through agape and its four working principles, asking whether a loving, situation-specific response might permit the act. Apply virtue ethics through the virtues and vices a person shows, and through what a virtuous person would discern.
capital punishment.
Capital punishment is the state-sanctioned taking of a person's life as a penalty for a serious offence. This topic asks you to apply three ethical theories to it. Apply natural moral law through the primary precept of preserving life and through secondary precepts about justice and the common good, and consider whether retribution can be reconciled with the prohibition on intentionally taking life. Apply situation ethics through agape and its working principles, asking whether a loving response could ever justify execution in a particular situation. Apply virtue ethics through the virtues and vices shown by the state and by individuals, and through what a virtuous person would discern about justice, mercy and respect for life. Weigh the theories against each other, consider arguments such as deterrence and retribution, and reach a reasoned judgement.
Issues of non-human life and death:
This heading opens the sub-topic on non-human life and death within the ethics of religion, where you apply three normative theories to questions about animals and other living creatures. Read it as a signpost, not a question: it tells you the coming material concerns how natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics each assess the taking, using or ending of non-human life. Build a comparison grid with one row per theory and columns for the theory's core principle, its verdict on using and killing animals, and the reasoning behind that verdict. For natural moral law, trace how primary precepts such as preserving life and living in an ordered society shape secondary precepts about animals. For situation ethics, ask how agape love judges each situation rather than a fixed rule.
use of animals as food; intensive farming
This criterion asks you to apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to two linked issues: using animals as food and intensive farming. For natural moral law, reason from primary precepts such as preserving life and living in an ordered society to secondary precepts about rearing and killing animals, and consider whether intensive methods violate the order and stewardship the theory values. For situation ethics, judge each case by agape love, weighing animal suffering against human need and asking whether a loving person would accept factory conditions. For virtue ethics, ask what a virtuous person's compassion, temperance and practical wisdom imply for how animals are farmed and eaten. Structure an answer that states each theory's principle, applies it to both issues, and reaches a reasoned verdict.
use of animals in scientific procedures; cloning
Learners apply three theories to animal experimentation and cloning. Natural moral law asks whether a procedure fits the primary precepts, especially preserving life and reproducing, and whether it is a reasonable means to a genuine good; a painful test with no proportionate benefit fails the secondary precept of not harming the innocent. Situation ethics weighs agape in the particular case, so a single animal test that secures a vaccine may be judged loving while routine duplication is not. Virtue ethics asks what a compassionate, temperate, honest researcher does, and whether the practice cultivates or corrodes those traits. Cloning raises the same questions about creating life instrumentally and about animal suffering. Answers should compare the theories on a concrete case, such as toxicity testing or cloning a sheep for research, and reach a reasoned judgement.
blood sports
Learners apply three theories to blood sports such as fox hunting or bullfighting. Natural moral law asks whether the practice fits the primary precepts, especially preserving life and living in an ordered society, and whether the suffering of the animal is a proportionate means to a genuine good; killing for entertainment rarely satisfies that test. Situation ethics weighs agape in the particular case, so a cull justified by real need may be judged differently from sport for amusement. Virtue ethics asks what a compassionate and temperate person does, and whether enjoying an animal's suffering cultivates cruelty or callousness. Answers should compare the theories on a concrete example, weigh arguments about tradition, livelihood and animal suffering, and reach a reasoned judgement.
animals as a source of organs for transplants.
This topic asks you to evaluate using animals as a source of organs for human transplants by applying three normative theories. With natural moral law, reason the primary precepts: preserving life supports xenotransplantation, but the secondary precept of stewardship over creation and the integrity of species may forbid it, so weigh which precept governs. With situation ethics, ask whether a particular transplant is the most loving action for the patient, the animal and the community, accepting that agape may justify flexibility. With virtue ethics, ask what a compassionate, prudent and just person would choose, and whether the practice cultivates or corrupts character. Reach a reasoned judgement rather than listing views.
Your focus
- Identify the issues of human life and death listed in this section of the specification.
- Explain how each of the three theories would reason about each issue.
- Compare the theories' conclusions and record the evaluative questions they raise.
Show all 30 objectives
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to embryo research, cloning and 'designer' babies.
- Explain how each theory's method shapes its verdict on the chosen issue.
- Reach and justify an overall conclusion that evaluates the applied theories.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to abortion.
- Explain how each theory's method shapes its verdict on abortion.
- Reach and justify an overall conclusion that evaluates the applied theories.
- Explain the difference between voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to both practices.
- Evaluate the theories and reach a justified conclusion.
- Explain what capital punishment is and the arguments for and against it.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to capital punishment.
- Evaluate the theories and reach a justified conclusion.
- Identify the three normative theories the section applies to non-human life and death.
- Explain how each theory's core principle generates a verdict on using or killing animals.
- Organise notes into a comparison grid covering all three theories.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to using animals as food.
- Apply the same three theories to intensive farming and reach a reasoned verdict.
- Explain the reasoning that links each theory's principle to its verdict on both issues.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to the use of animals in scientific procedures.
- Apply the same theories to cloning as a use of animals in science.
- Compare the theories on a concrete case and reach a reasoned judgement.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to blood sports.
- Compare the theories on a concrete example such as fox hunting.
- Weigh tradition and livelihood against animal suffering and reach a reasoned judgement.
- Apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to the use of animals as organ sources.
- Weigh competing considerations within each theory to reach a reasoned judgement.
- Justify a conclusion about xenotransplantation using applied ethical reasoning.
Ethics and religion: The application of natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics exam tips
Marking Points
- Applies the threefold analysis of object, intention and circumstances to embryo research, cloning or 'designer' babies and reaches a reasoned verdict.
- Explains the relevant primary precepts of natural moral law, such as preservation of life and reproduction, and links them to the chosen issue.
- Uses situation ethics' agapeistic, person-centred method to weigh the loving outcome of a concrete case rather than applying a fixed rule.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a person of practical wisdom would choose and which character traits the practice cultivates or damages.
- Compares the theories' verdicts on the same issue and explains why they diverge, rather than describing them in isolation.
- Reaches a justified overall conclusion that weighs the strengths and weaknesses of the applied theories.
- Applies the threefold analysis of object, intention and circumstances to abortion and reaches a reasoned verdict.
- Explains the relevant primary precepts of natural moral law, such as preservation of innocent life, and links them to abortion.
- Uses situation ethics' agapeistic, person-centred method to weigh the loving outcome in a concrete case rather than applying a fixed rule.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a person of practical wisdom and compassion would choose and which traits the decision reflects.
- Compares the theories' verdicts on abortion and explains why they diverge, rather than describing them in isolation.
- Reaches a justified overall conclusion that weighs the strengths and weaknesses of the applied theories.
- Distinguishes voluntary euthanasia from assisted suicide by identifying who performs the final act and who requests it.
- Applies natural moral law by relating the primary precept of preserving life to the prohibition of intentionally ending life.
- Uses situation ethics by weighing agape and the working principles against a legalistic prohibition.
- Applies virtue ethics by considering which virtues and vices the decision and the surrounding motives display.
- Reaches a reasoned judgement that compares the theories rather than merely listing them.
- Defines capital punishment as state-sanctioned killing for an offence and keeps that definition consistent.
- Applies natural moral law by weighing the primary precept of preserving life against secondary precepts about justice and the common good.
- Uses situation ethics by testing whether agape and the working principles could ever justify execution.
- Applies virtue ethics by considering which virtues and vices the practice of execution displays.
- Evaluates arguments such as deterrence and retribution and reaches a reasoned judgement comparing the theories.
- States the core principle of natural moral law, such as preserving life and living in an ordered society, and derives secondary precepts relevant to rearing and killing animals.
- Applies natural moral law to intensive farming by weighing whether confined rearing respects the order and stewardship the theory values.
- Explains how situation ethics judges using animals as food by asking what agape love requires in each situation rather than applying a fixed rule.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a virtuous person's compassion, temperance and practical wisdom imply for farming and eating animals.
- Reaches a reasoned verdict on each issue and supports it with the theory's reasoning rather than assertion alone.
- Applies natural moral law by testing whether a procedure serves the primary precepts of preserving life and reproducing, and whether the harm is a proportionate means to a real good.
- Applies situation ethics by weighing agape in the specific case, so the loving outcome for the particular situation decides rather than a fixed rule.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a compassionate and temperate researcher would do and whether the practice builds or damages character.
- Compares at least two theories on a concrete example such as toxicity testing or cloning an animal for research, showing where they agree and diverge.
- Reaches a reasoned judgement about whether animal procedures and cloning can be justified, supporting it with the theory applied rather than assertion.
- Applies natural moral law by asking whether blood sports serve the primary precepts and whether animal suffering is a proportionate means to a genuine good.
- Applies situation ethics by weighing agape in the particular case, distinguishing sport for amusement from a practice justified by real need.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a compassionate and temperate person does and whether enjoying animal suffering cultivates cruelty.
- Compares at least two theories on a concrete example such as fox hunting, showing where they agree and diverge on tradition, livelihood and suffering.
- Reaches a reasoned judgement about whether blood sports can be justified, supporting it with the theory applied rather than assertion.
- Applies natural moral law by reasoning from primary precepts such as preserving life and from secondary precepts such as stewardship, then weighs which precept governs the case.
- Applies situation ethics by judging whether a particular xenotransplant is the most loving action for patient, animal and community rather than applying a fixed rule.
- Applies virtue ethics by asking what a compassionate, prudent and just person would choose and whether the practice cultivates or corrupts character.
- Reaches a sustained reasoned judgement about whether animals should be used as organ sources, rather than merely listing the three theories.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Build a comparison grid of issues against the three theories and fill it as you read, so no cell is left blank.
- 💡For each cell, write one sentence of the theory's reasoning and one evaluative question it raises.
- 💡Note explicitly where two theories reach the same conclusion by different routes, since this sharpens later evaluation.
- 💡Name the specific issue in each paragraph so the examiner sees application, not general theory.
- 💡Use a clear structure: theory, application, evaluation, then a short justified conclusion.
- 💡Anchor evaluation in the strengths and weaknesses of each theory as applied, not in vague opinion.
- 💡Name abortion explicitly in each paragraph so the examiner sees application, not general theory.
- 💡Use a clear structure: theory, application, evaluation, then a short justified conclusion.
- 💡Anchor evaluation in the strengths and weaknesses of each theory as applied, not in vague opinion.
- 💡Define both terms precisely in your opening so the examiner sees you understand the distinction.
- 💡Anchor each theory in its own concepts: primary precepts for natural moral law, agape for situation ethics, virtues for virtue ethics.
- 💡Build a judgement that compares the theories and explains which you find most persuasive and why.
- 💡Define capital punishment clearly and keep the definition consistent throughout your answer.
- 💡Apply each theory using its own vocabulary: primary and secondary precepts, agape and working principles, virtues and vices.
- 💡Weigh retribution and deterrence against the theories and state which framework you find most persuasive.
- 💡Make a three-column comparison grid for natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics before reading further, and fill it as you study.
- 💡For each theory, write the core principle in one sentence, then the verdict on animals, then the reasoning that links them.
- 💡Check your notes against the heading's wording so you cover non-human life and death rather than drifting into human bioethics.
- 💡Open each paragraph with the theory's principle, then apply it to animals as food or intensive farming, then state the verdict.
- 💡Cover both issues named in the criterion and all three theories so no clause is left unaddressed.
- 💡Use a concrete example of intensive farming practice to anchor the application rather than staying abstract.
- 💡Anchor each paragraph in one theory applied to one concrete procedure, so the application is visible rather than abstract.
- 💡Use the wording of the question to structure comparison, showing where natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics converge and conflict.
- 💡Reserve time to state a clear judgement that follows from the reasoning you have already given.
- 💡Anchor each paragraph in one theory applied to one concrete blood sport, so the application is visible rather than abstract.
- 💡Use the wording of the question to structure comparison, showing where natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics converge and conflict.
- 💡Reserve time to state a clear judgement that follows from the reasoning you have already given.
- 💡Name the specific theory in each paragraph and apply it to a concrete transplant scenario.
- 💡Show tension between precepts or between theories rather than presenting one flat answer.
- 💡Reserve time to state and justify a clear final judgement.
- 💡Use precise terms such as primary precept, secondary precept, agape and eudaimonia correctly.
Common Mistakes
- Treats the heading as a topic to be described rather than a signpost to the listed issues; identify the specific life-and-death issues named in the specification and apply each theory to them.
- Applies only one theory to an issue; apply natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics to each issue as the section requires.
- Describes a theory in general terms without showing how it bears on the particular issue; connect the theory's reasoning directly to the decision at hand.
- Lists the theories' views without applying them to the specific issue; apply each theory to embryo research, cloning or 'designer' babies in turn.
- Treats natural moral law as a simple rulebook that forbids everything; explain how object, intention and circumstances together shape the judgement.
- Assumes situation ethics always permits any action; show that it still demands a genuinely loving, person-centred outcome.
- Describes virtue ethics as a list of rules; focus instead on character, practical wisdom and the traits a practice cultivates.
- Lists the theories' views without applying them to abortion; apply each theory's method to the issue in turn.
- Treats natural moral law as a simple rulebook that forbids everything; explain how object, intention and circumstances together shape the judgement.
- Assumes situation ethics always permits abortion; show that it still demands a genuinely loving, person-centred outcome.
- Describes virtue ethics as a list of rules; focus instead on character, practical wisdom and the traits a decision reflects.
- Treats voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide as identical; separate them by identifying who performs the final act.
- Assumes natural moral law permits any act that relieves suffering; apply the primary precepts and secondary precepts explicitly.
- Describes situation ethics as simple rule-breaking; explain agape and the working principles as the basis for judgement.
- Lists virtues without applying them to the decision; connect each virtue to the specific act and motive.
- Confuses capital punishment with personal killing; define it as state-sanctioned penalty for an offence.
- Assumes natural moral law gives a single verdict; weigh the primary precept of preserving life against secondary precepts on justice.
- Treats situation ethics as automatic opposition; test agape and the working principles against the specific situation.
- Discusses deterrence without linking it to a theory; connect each argument to the ethical framework you are applying.
- Treats the heading as an examinable definition to be memorised; instead use it to map which theories and which animal issues the section requires you to apply.
- Studies only one theory in depth and neglects the other two; build the comparison grid so natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics are each covered.
- Confuses this heading with human life-and-death issues such as abortion or euthanasia; keep the focus on non-human life and death as the heading states.
- Describes each theory in general terms without applying it to animals as food or intensive farming; link every principle to the specific issue.
- Treats situation ethics as having a fixed rule banning or permitting meat; instead show how agape love judges each situation.
- Asserts a verdict without showing the reasoning that connects the theory's principle to the conclusion; make the chain of reasoning explicit.
- Lists the three theories without applying any to a concrete animal procedure; apply each theory to a named case such as vaccine testing.
- Treats natural moral law as a simple rule that forbids all animal use; explain how proportionate reasoning and the primary precepts work together.
- Describes situation ethics as doing whatever feels kind; tie the judgement to agape and the particular situation.
- Ignores cloning and writes only about testing; address cloning as a distinct use of animals in scientific procedures.
- Lists the three theories without applying any to a concrete blood sport; apply each theory to a named practice such as fox hunting.
- Treats natural moral law as automatically forbidding every killing of animals; explain how proportionate reasoning and the primary precepts work together.
- Describes situation ethics as doing whatever feels kind; tie the judgement to agape and the particular situation.
- Ignores the arguments about tradition and livelihood; weigh them against animal suffering before judging.
- Lists the three theories without applying them to xenotransplantation; apply each theory directly to the transplant case.
- Treats natural moral law as a single rule with one answer; weigh competing precepts such as preserving life against stewardship.
- Describes situation ethics as having no principles at all; explain that agape remains its guiding principle.
- Offers a conclusion with no supporting reasoning; justify the judgement with the applied theory.