Geography

E2E stub topic

This subtopic examines the dynamic processes shaping coastal landscapes, including erosion, transportation, and deposition, within the context of the WJEC A-Level Geography specification. It integrates theoretical models with case study analysis to explore how human intervention and natural change interact, equipping learners to evaluate management strategies and predict future impacts on vulnerable coastlines.

E2E stub subtopic

Coastal Landscapes (optional)

Coastal Landscapes involves the study of coastal systems, including inputs, outputs, stores, and transfers of energy and materials. It focuses on geomorphological processes (weathering, mass movement, erosion, transport, and deposition) and the resulting landforms on rocky, sandy, and estuarine coastlines. The theme integrates the impact of human activity, management strategies, and the influence of climate change on coastal systems.

The operation of the coast as a system

The operation of the coast as a system, focusing on inputs, outputs, stores, and transfers of energy and materials, sediment cells, and dynamic equilibrium.

The impact of human activity on coastal landscape systems

The study of the impact of human activity on coastal landscape systems, focusing on both positive and negative impacts, management strategies, and the role of human activity as a factor causing change.

Temporal variations and their influence on coastal environments

This topic examines the temporal variations in coastal environments, focusing on the influence of diurnal tides, offshore and onshore currents, and the characteristics and seasonal variations of constructive and destructive waves.

Landforms and landscape systems, their distinctive features and distribution

This topic focuses on the operation of coastal landscapes as systems, including inputs, outputs, stores, and transfers of energy and materials. It examines the geomorphological processes (weathering, mass movement, erosion, transport, and deposition) that create distinctive landforms in high-energy (rocky) and low-energy (sandy/estuarine) environments, as well as the influence of human activity on these systems.

Factors affecting coastal processes and landforms

This topic examines the factors influencing coastal processes and landforms, focusing on the interaction of winds, waves, currents, and sediment supply. It covers lithological and structural geological factors that shape rocky, sandy, and estuarine coastlines within a systems framework.

Processes of coastal weathering, mass movement, erosion and the characteristics and formation of associated landforms and landscapes

This topic explores the geomorphological processes of weathering, mass movement, and erosion in coastal environments, and how these processes interact to form specific landforms and landscapes, both within the UK and globally.

Processes of coastal transport and deposition and the characteristics and formation of associated landforms and landscapes

This topic covers the processes of coastal transport and deposition, including the mechanisms of sediment movement and the resulting landforms. It examines how reduced energy levels lead to depositional features and the formation of specific coastal landscapes both within and beyond the UK.

Aeolian, fluvial and biotic processes, the characteristics and formation of landforms in coastal environments

This topic explores the interaction of aeolian (wind), fluvial (river/estuarine), and biotic (living) processes in shaping coastal landforms. It examines the formation of specific features such as sand dunes, tidal flats, salt marshes, and coral reefs/mangroves, and how these processes vary over different temporal scales.

Variations in coastal processes, coastal landforms and landscapes over different time scales

Variations in coastal processes, coastal landforms and landscapes over different time scales, focusing on changes occurring in seconds, seasons, and millennia.

Coastal processes are a vital context for human activity

This topic examines the role of coastal processes as a vital context for human activity, focusing on the positive and negative impacts of these processes on human activity and the management strategies employed to mitigate these impacts.

Glaciated Landscapes (optional)

The Glaciated Landscapes theme explores the systems, processes, and landforms associated with valley glaciers and ice sheets. It examines the glacial budget, movement, and the impact of climate change on glacial environments, alongside the role of human activity in these landscapes.

The operation of a glacier as a system

The operation of a glacier as a system, focusing on inputs, outputs, stores, and transfers of energy and materials, mass balance, and feedback mechanisms.

Glacial processes are a vital context for human activity

This topic examines the impacts of glacial processes and landforms on human activity, including the risks posed by glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), the human impact on glacial landscapes through activities like sand and gravel extraction and reservoir creation, and the consequences of permafrost degradation.

Climate change and the glacier budget over different time scales

This topic examines the operation of glaciers as systems, focusing on the glacial budget (mass balance), the causes of climate change over different time scales (Quaternary Ice Age, Little Ice Age), and the impact of seasonal changes on glacier mass balance.

Glacier movement

The study of glacier movement as part of a systems framework, focusing on the differences between cold- and warm-based glaciers, their locations, rates of movement, and the mechanisms of ice movement including internal deformation, basal sliding, sub-glacial bed deformation, surge conditions, and compressional/extensional flow.

The range of glacial environments and their distribution

This topic explores the classification, distribution, and characteristics of various ice masses, including cirque glaciers, valley glaciers, highland ice fields, piedmont glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice. It covers the historical distribution of these features during the Quaternary Ice Age and their present-day global distribution.

Processes of glacial weathering, erosion and the characteristics and formation of associated landforms and landscapes

This topic focuses on the geomorphological processes of weathering, erosion, and the resulting landforms in glaciated landscapes. It examines the operation of glaciers as systems, the influence of climate change on glacial budgets, glacier movement, and the formation of macro, meso, and micro-scale erosional and depositional landforms. It also covers periglacial processes and the impact of human activity on these systems.

Processes of glacial and fluvioglacial transport and deposition and the characteristics and formation of associated landforms and landscapes

This topic covers the processes of glacial and fluvioglacial transport and deposition, and the characteristics and formation of associated landforms and landscapes, within a systems framework.

Suites of landforms within glacial landscapes

This topic explores the variations in glacial landscapes, focusing on the differences between highland and lowland environments, and the distinctions between ice sheets and valley glaciers.

Periglacial processes and the formation of associated features

The study of periglacial processes and the formation of associated landforms, focusing on ground ice, frost weathering, mass movement, and the action of water and wind in periglacial environments.

Variations in glacial processes, glacial landforms and landscapes over different time scales

This topic examines the variations in glacial processes, landforms, and landscapes over different time scales, focusing on short-term events, seasonal changes, and long-term post-glacial modifications.

Changing Places (compulsory)

The Changing Places theme focuses on the dynamic nature of places, exploring how they are shaped by shifting flows of people, money, investment, and ideas. It examines the meaning and representation of places, economic restructuring, social inequalities, and the processes of rebranding and regeneration in both rural and urban contexts.

Changing place; changing places – relationships and connections

This theme focuses on the dynamic nature of places, defined as portions of geographic space to which meaning has been given. It explores how places change over time, develop layered histories, and are shaped by relationships and connections at local, regional, national, and international scales. It examines the economic, social, and cultural characteristics of places, the role of external forces, and the processes of rebranding and remaking rural and urban areas.

Urban management and the challenges of continuity and change

This topic explores the management of urban areas, focusing on the challenges of continuity and change. It examines how re-imaging and regeneration affect the social and economic characteristics of urban places, the challenges faced by areas where regeneration has failed or is absent, and the new challenges of managing change in urban communities, specifically in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic and broader economic shifts.

Changing place; changing places – meaning and representation

This theme focuses on the dynamic nature of places, defined as portions of geographic space to which meaning has been given by people. It explores how places have distinct characteristics, layered histories, and identities shaped by natural features, human-created landscapes, and relationships with other places at various scales. It examines how places are dynamic due to constant flux in population, society, economy, and environment, and how government and society respond through innovation, marketing, and reinvention (remaking of places).

Changes over time in the economic characteristics of places

This topic explores the dynamic nature of places, focusing on how economic changes over time lead to structural shifts in employment, the influence of external forces, and the subsequent social and economic impacts on urban and rural areas.

Economic change and social inequalities in deindustrialised urban places

This topic examines the socio-economic impacts of deindustrialisation in urban areas, focusing on the cycle of deprivation, social exclusion, unemployment, and the role of government policies in stimulating tertiary growth and foreign investment.

The service economy (tertiary) and its social and economic impacts

This topic examines the service economy (tertiary sector) within urban areas, focusing on the drivers of change, the impacts of economic restructuring, and the social and economic consequences of these shifts on urban places and individuals.

The 21st century knowledge economy (quaternary) and its social and economic impacts

The 21st century knowledge economy (quaternary) and its social and economic impacts, focusing on the growth of knowledge-based clusters, locational factors, and their broader impacts on place-making, demographics, and global connectivity.

The rebranding process and players in rural places

This topic explores the rebranding and regeneration of rural places, focusing on how post-productive rural areas are re-imaged through recreation, heritage, media, and event management. It examines the roles of local groups and external agencies in these processes and the subsequent impacts on perceptions, behaviors, and local communities.

Rural management and the challenges of continuity and change

This topic focuses on the management of rural areas, addressing challenges of continuity and change. It covers managing rural change and inequality, including housing, transport, and service provision (specifically digital connectivity). It also examines challenges in rural places where regeneration or rebranding has failed or caused conflict, and the new challenges associated with counter-urbanisation and second home ownership.

The rebranding process and players in urban places

This topic examines the processes of re-imaging and regenerating urban places, focusing on the roles of various players and the resulting impacts on urban environments and communities.

Water and Carbon Cycles (compulsory)

The Water and Carbon Cycles theme explores the physical processes controlling the cycling of water and carbon between land, oceans, and the atmosphere. It uses a systems framework to examine the integrated nature of these cycles, their role in supporting life on Earth, and the impacts of human activity and feedback loops at various temporal and spatial scales.

The concepts of system and mass balance

The concepts of system and mass balance within the water cycle, focusing on inputs, outputs, stores, and flows, and how these change over space and time.

Feedback within and between the carbon and water cycles

This topic explores the feedback loops, thresholds, and equilibrium within and between the water and carbon cycles, and the implications of these interactions for life on Earth, specifically focusing on cryosphere, marine, terrestrial, and methane feedbacks.

Catchment hydrology – the drainage basin as a system

The drainage basin as a system, focusing on inputs, flows, stores, and outputs of water within a catchment area.

Temporal variations in river discharge

This topic examines the temporal variations in river discharge, focusing on river regimes, storm hydrographs, and the climatic and catchment factors that influence them.

Precipitation and excess runoff within the water cycle

This topic examines the physical processes governing precipitation and the generation of excess runoff within the water cycle, including both natural and human-induced factors.

Deficit within the water cycle

This topic examines the causes and management of water deficits, focusing on meteorological and human-induced factors, and the role of aquifer recharge.

The global carbon cycle

The global carbon cycle theme explores the inputs, outputs, stores, and flows of carbon within the Earth system, emphasizing mass balance and the interrelationships between land, oceans, and the atmosphere. It covers carbon pathways at various temporal and spatial scales, the influence of biomes and human activity on carbon stores, and the feedback loops linking the carbon and water cycles.

Carbon stores in different biomes

This topic examines the carbon stores within tropical rainforest and temperate grassland biomes, the factors influencing their size (temperature, precipitation, light), and the impact of human activities such as land-use change (deforestation, afforestation, and agricultural activity) on these stores.

Changing carbon stores in peatlands over time

This topic focuses on the carbon cycle within peatlands, specifically the processes of carbon accumulation through peat formation, the reduction of carbon stores due to human activities like extraction and drainage, and the restoration of these stores through management.

Links between the water and carbon cycles

This topic explores the physical processes controlling the cycling of water and carbon between land, oceans, and the atmosphere, emphasizing the integrated nature of these systems and their role in supporting life on Earth. It examines the links between these cycles, the impact of human activity, and the feedback loops that influence the energy budget and global climate.

Global Governance: Change and Challenges (compulsory)

This theme explores global governance through two distinct lenses: the processes and patterns of global migration, and the global governance of the Earth's oceans. It examines how globalisation and technological developments have created a 'shrinking world', leading to opportunities and challenges for different localities. It also addresses the strategic importance of oceans as a global commons, the role of supranational institutions, and the management of ocean resources and pollution.

Globalisation, migration and a shrinking world

This topic explores the processes and patterns of global migration, the impact of globalisation on creating a 'shrinking world', and the resulting opportunities and challenges for different localities.

Managing ocean pollution

The management of ocean pollution, focusing on the sources, causes, and consequences of pollution, and the strategies employed to manage marine waste at various geographical scales.

Causes of international economic migration

This topic examines the drivers and consequences of international economic migration within the context of global systems and globalisation. It explores the factors pushing people to migrate, the role of superpower states in attracting migrants, and the socio-economic impacts on both host and source countries, including the role of remittances and migration policies.

Consequences and management of international economic migration

This topic examines the processes, patterns, and consequences of international economic migration, focusing on the flows of money, ideas, and technology. It explores how these flows impact global economic inequalities, including remittances and the 'brain drain' of skilled workers, and how migration creates interdependency between host and source countries. It also covers the management of migration policies and the conflicting views held by citizens regarding cultural change.

Causes, consequences, and management of refugee movements

This theme examines the causes, consequences, and management of international refugee movements and internal displacement, focusing on geopolitical drivers, economic injustice, and the role of international governance.

Causes, consequences, and management of rural-urban migration in developing countries

This topic examines the drivers, impacts, and management of rural-urban migration in developing and emerging economies, focusing on the push factors in rural areas and the pull factors in urban areas, including the role of global supply chains and urban planning.

Global governance of the Earth's oceans

This theme explores the global governance of the Earth's oceans, focusing on the strategic importance of oceans, global flows (shipping, cables, illegal movements), sovereignty of resources, and the management of marine environments and pollution. It emphasizes the role of supranational institutions and the concept of the Global Commons.

Global flows of shipping and sea cables

This topic examines the global governance of the Earth's oceans, specifically focusing on the changing trends, patterns, networks, and regulation of shipping (containers and oil tankers), the growth of smuggling and people trafficking, and the development of seafloor cable data networks, including their risks and protection.

Sovereignty of ocean resources

The sovereignty of ocean resources focuses on the distribution, ownership, and geopolitical tensions surrounding marine resources, including minerals and fossil fuels. It examines the establishment of territorial limits, sovereign rights, and the resulting injustices for landlocked countries and indigenous populations.

Managing marine environments

This topic focuses on the management of marine environments, specifically the concept of the Global Commons, the causes and consequences of over-exploitation of marine ecosystems, the necessity of sustainable management to promote long-term growth and stability (including local no-catch zones, regional quotas, and marine conservation zones), and the management of ocean pollution.

Tectonic Hazards (compulsory)

The study of the Earth's structure and processes within the asthenosphere and lithosphere, focusing on tectonic activity at plate boundaries, the nature of volcanic and seismic hazards, their impacts, and management strategies.

Tectonic processes and hazards

The study of the Earth's structure, tectonic processes within the asthenosphere and lithosphere, and the resulting hazards (volcanic and seismic). It covers the global distribution of these hazards, their physical characteristics, impacts on people and the environment, and the management strategies used to mitigate risk and vulnerability.

Volcanoes, processes, hazards and their impacts

This theme focuses on the Earth's structure, tectonic processes, and the resulting hazards (volcanic and seismic). It examines the physical processes, distribution, and impacts of these hazards, as well as human vulnerability and management strategies.

Earthquakes, processes, hazards and their impacts

This topic covers the structure of the Earth, tectonic processes within the asthenosphere and lithosphere, and the resulting seismic and volcanic hazards. It examines the causes, characteristics, and impacts of earthquakes, as well as human factors influencing risk and vulnerability, and management strategies for mitigation and response.

Human factors affecting risk and vulnerability

This topic examines the human factors that influence the risk and vulnerability of populations to tectonic hazards, focusing on how socio-economic, political, and geographical variables determine the impact of seismic and volcanic events.

Responses to tectonic hazards

This topic focuses on the management of tectonic hazards, specifically the monitoring, prediction, and warning systems for volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis. It covers strategies to mitigate these hazards by modifying the event, vulnerability, and loss, as well as the short-term and long-term responses to tectonic events within the hazard management cycle.

Ecosystems (optional)

This theme addresses ecosystems, focusing on the processes that maintain or change them and the interactions between component parts at various scales. It views humans as drivers of change and as being at risk when systems lose equilibrium. The Arctic tundra biome (excluding Alpine) is the mandatory case study.

The value and distribution of ecosystems

This topic explores the value of ecosystems as providers of goods and services for human survival and well-being, including medicines, gene pools, and hazard resilience. It covers the global distribution of major biomes and the relationship between temperature, precipitation, and biome distribution.

The structure and functioning of ecosystems

This topic explores the ecosystem concept, focusing on energy flows, nutrient cycling, and the role of limiting factors in primary productivity. It examines the interdependence of abiotic and biotic elements and the impact of human activity on ecosystem structure and functioning.

Biodiversity under threat

This topic explores the measures of biodiversity, the threats to biodiversity from direct and indirect human actions at various scales, and the identification of ecosystems at greatest risk, specifically tropical rainforests, coral reefs, and wetlands.

Conserving biodiversity

This topic focuses on the strategies and challenges involved in conserving biodiversity, including the range of approaches from total protection to sustainable use, and the associated decision-making processes regarding habitat/species conservation and funding.

Ecosystems at a local scale

This theme focuses on the processes that maintain or change ecosystems and the interactions between their component parts at various spatial and temporal scales. It emphasizes the role of humans as drivers of change and the interdependence of abiotic and biotic elements, with the Arctic tundra biome serving as a specific case study.

The Arctic tundra biome

The Arctic tundra biome is a specific ecosystem characterized by extreme cold, low precipitation, and unique flora and fauna. It is studied as a case study for ecosystems at risk due to climate change, focusing on the interrelationships between climate, soils, plants, and animals, and the challenges of sustainable management in the face of human activity.

Sustainable use of the Arctic tundra biome

The sustainable use of the Arctic tundra biome, focusing on the threats posed by human activity and climate change, the conflicts with indigenous populations, and the management strategies employed to protect this ecosystem.

Economic Growth and Challenge: India or China (optional)

This theme explores the contemporary geography of either India or China, focusing on their emergence as global superpowers. It examines the opportunities and constraints presented by their physical environments, demographic, social, cultural, economic, and political characteristics, and the challenges of achieving sustainable development amidst environmental degradation and growing inequalities.

The importance of the physical background of India or China

The physical background of India or China, focusing on the opportunities and constraints for economic development presented by their physical environments, including relief, drainage, climate, and water availability.

The influence of economic factors on the development of two or more African countries

This topic examines the influence of economic factors on the development of two or more African countries, exploring how these factors promote or hinder development processes and their subsequent environmental and social impacts.

The influence of political, social and cultural factors on the development of two or more African countries

The influence of political, social and cultural factors on the development of two or more African countries, focusing on the interplay of these factors in promoting or hindering the development process.

The impact of development on the environment of two or more African countries

This topic examines the environmental impacts of economic development in two or more African countries, focusing on the exploitation of natural resources, agro-industrialisation, and the environmental consequences of manufacturing and extractive industries.

Challenges of desertification in two or more African countries

The challenges of desertification in two or more African countries, focusing on the causes, consequences, and management strategies to address this environmental issue within the context of development.

Strategies to promote development in two or more African countries

This topic focuses on strategies to promote development in two or more African countries, examining the roles of national governments, international aid agencies, NGOs, micro-finance schemes, the World Bank, and the IMF in fostering economic, social, and environmental development.

The influence of the demographic, social and cultural characteristics of India or China

This topic explores the demographic, social, and cultural characteristics of India or China, focusing on how these factors influence their development, population structure, and social change.

Opportunities and constraints of India or China's physical environment

This topic examines the contemporary geography of either India or China, focusing on the opportunities and constraints presented by their physical environments for economic development, set against the backdrop of demographic, social, cultural, economic, and political changes.

The economic and political background of India or China

This theme explores the contemporary geography of either India or China, focusing on their emergence as global superpowers. It examines the physical, demographic, social, cultural, economic, and political factors that influence their development, alongside the challenges of sustainable development, environmental degradation, and growing inequalities.

The global importance of India or China

The theme explores the contemporary geography of either India or China, focusing on their emergence as global superpowers. It examines the opportunities and constraints presented by their physical environments, demographic, social, and cultural characteristics, and the economic and political factors influencing their development. The theme also addresses the global importance of these nations, the environmental threats associated with their rapid economic growth, and strategies for sustainable development.

Threats to India's or China's environment associated with economic growth

This topic examines the environmental threats resulting from economic growth in either India or China. It focuses on the pressures placed on the environment by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and the pursuit of economic development, alongside the challenges of maintaining water, food, and energy security.

Sustainable development in India or China

This theme focuses on the contemporary geography of either India or China, examining their emergence as global superpowers. It explores the opportunities and constraints for economic development presented by their physical environments, set against demographic, social, cultural, economic, and political changes. It also addresses the challenges of sustainable development, including environmental degradation, water, energy, and food security, and growing inequalities.

Definitions, measures and patterns of development (African Context)

This topic explores the development process within Africa, focusing on definitions, measures, and patterns of development. It examines the interplay of physical, economic, political, social, and cultural factors that promote or hinder development, the environmental impacts of development (specifically desertification), and strategies for management and promotion of development in two or more countries.

The influence of physical factors on the development of two or more African countries

The influence of physical factors on the development of two or more African countries, focusing on the interplay of physical, economic, political, social, and cultural factors that promote or hinder development.

Energy Challenges and Dilemmas (optional)

This theme covers the classification and distribution of energy resources and the physical factors determining their supply. It explores reasons for growing energy demand, issues associated with managing energy supplies, and factors influencing a country's energy mix, including the link with development. It addresses challenges of traditional energy sources in developing countries, the role of appropriate technology, and the need for sustainable solutions through international, national, and local strategies to provide clean, green, and socially equitable energy.

The classification and distribution of energy resources

This theme covers the classification and distribution of energy resources, the physical factors determining their supply, and the challenges associated with managing energy demand and supply. It explores the relationship between energy mixes and development, the problems of extraction and transport, and the need for sustainable solutions through international, national, and local strategies.

Physical factors determining the supply of energy

This topic examines the physical factors that determine the supply of energy, focusing on geological, climatic, relief, and environmental conditions that influence the potential for various energy sources.

The changing demand for energy

This topic explores the classification, distribution, and supply of energy resources, the factors driving changing global demand, and the management of energy supplies. It examines the energy mix in relation to development, the challenges of energy extraction and use, and the need for sustainable solutions to meet energy demand.

The global management of oil and gas

The global management of oil and gas, focusing on the imbalance between supply and demand, the role of MNCs and national governments in exploration and production, and the management of supplies by OPEC and national governments.

Problems associated with extraction, transport and use of energy

This topic examines the problems associated with the extraction, transport, and use of energy resources, focusing on environmental, political, technological, and economic challenges.

Energy mixes and development

This theme explores the classification and distribution of energy resources, the physical factors determining their supply, and the drivers of energy demand. It examines the management of energy supplies, the factors influencing national energy mixes, and the challenges associated with energy extraction, transport, and use. It also addresses the role of appropriate technology in developing countries and the need for sustainable solutions to meet energy demand.

The need for sustainable solutions to meet the demand for energy

This theme explores the classification, distribution, and supply of energy resources, the drivers of energy demand, and the management of energy supplies. It examines the energy mix at different stages of development, the challenges of traditional energy sources in developing countries, and the necessity for sustainable, clean, and equitable energy solutions.

Weather and Climate (optional)

This theme explores global atmospheric systems, the UK's changeable climate, extreme weather events, and the impacts of human activity on urban climates. It emphasizes the management of climatic hazards, the challenges of climate change, and the concept of atmospheric tipping points.

Global controls on climate

This topic explores the global atmospheric systems that create distinctive climatic types, the UK's changeable climate, and the impacts and management of weather and climate hazards. It also covers the impacts of human activity on urban climates and the future challenges of anthropogenic climate change.

World's major climate types

This topic covers the world's major climate types and their distinctive characteristics, including temperature, precipitation, winds, and pressure. It also examines seasonal variations in the position of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the monsoon climate, including seasonal changes in precipitation, temperature, winds, and atmospheric pressure.

Climate and weather of the UK

This topic explores the characteristics of the UK's climate, the sources and characteristics of air masses influencing UK weather, and the impacts of variations in the position, pattern, and amplitude of the jet stream on UK weather.

Extreme weather events

This theme explores the global controls on climate, the UK's climate and weather systems, and the causes and consequences of extreme weather events. It examines the changing vulnerability of populations to weather and climatic hazards, the impacts of low and high-pressure systems, and strategies for mitigation and adaptation to climatic hazards.

Impacts and management of climatic hazards

This topic examines the impacts of climatic hazards associated with low and high-pressure systems on the environment and human activity, and the strategies used to manage these climatic hazards.

Impacts of human activities on the atmosphere of urban areas at local and regional scales

This topic examines the impacts of urban areas on local and regional atmospheric conditions, focusing on changes to temperature, wind, precipitation, and humidity, as well as air quality issues like particulate pollution, photochemical smog, and acid rain, alongside strategies for mitigation.

People, climate and the future

This theme explores the global impact of anthropogenic climate change on shifting climate belts, the consequences of reaching atmospheric tipping points, and strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change at various scales.