2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (A-level only) – 1795 The origins of the French Revolution, 1774–1789 — AQA A-Level History
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2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (A-level only) – 1795 The origins of the French Revolution, 1774–1789 explained
The Ancien Régime was structured around absolute monarchy, where Louis XVI held supreme authority by divine right, though his power was practically limited by overlapping jurisdictions and parlements.
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Government administration was complex and inefficient, relying on intendants and a chaotic legal system. Society was rigidly divided into three Estates: the First (clergy) and Second (nobility) enjoyed vast privileges, including exemption from the taille, while the Third Estate (commoners) bore heavy tax burdens like the corvée and tithes. While the system's strengths included a powerful standing army and a rich cultural court at Versailles, its fatal weaknesses were systemic financial inefficiency, deep social inequality, and Louis XVI's indecisive leadership during crises.
The ideas of the Enlightened philosophes: extent of influence in France; the salons; impact of the American revolution and War of Independence
The Enlightenment introduced radical ideas challenging absolute monarchy and the Church, championed by philosophes like Montesquieu (separation of powers), Voltaire (freedom of speech), and Rousseau (the social contract). Their influence in France was extensive among the educated elite, spreading rapidly through Parisian salons hosted by prominent women, which facilitated intellectual debate outside royal control. The American Revolution and War of Independence profoundly impacted France by providing a practical, successful model of a nation built on Enlightenment principles of liberty and republicanism. Furthermore, French military involvement in the American War of Independence severely exacerbated the Crown's financial crisis, directly accelerating the collapse of the Ancien Régime.
Economic problems and royal finance: attempts to improve royal finances under Turgot, Necker and Calonne
The French Crown faced severe economic problems and a mounting deficit, exacerbated by costly foreign wars like the American Revolution and an inefficient, regressive taxation system that exempted the privileged estates. Successive Controllers-General attempted to improve royal finances but faced insurmountable opposition. Turgot (1774–1776) advocated free trade and a universal land tax but was dismissed after his Six Edicts alienated the parlements. Necker (1777–1781) avoided new taxes by securing high-interest loans and published the Compte Rendu au Roi (1781), which misleadingly claimed a surplus, masking the true deficit. Calonne (1783–1787) proposed a radical reform package, including a general land tax payable by all, but his failure to bypass the parlements led to the disastrous Assembly of Notables.
The Assembly of Notables and political developments, February 1787 to May 1789; the state of France, politically, economically and socially by the meeting of the Estates-General
The Assembly of Notables (February 1787) marked a turning point, as privileged elites rejected Calonne’s land tax, demanding the Estates-General's approval. This triggered a political crisis, leading to the 'Revolt of the Nobles' and the suspension of the parlements. By May 1789, France was politically paralysed; royal authority had collapsed, forcing Louis XVI to summon the Estates-General. Economically, the nation faced bankruptcy, exacerbated by the disastrous 1788 harvest, soaring bread prices, and widespread unemployment. Socially, tensions peaked as the Third Estate, politicised by pamphlets like Sieyès' What is the Third Estate?, demanded voting by head rather than by order, challenging the entrenched privileges of the First and Second Estates.
Your focus
- Describe the theoretical basis and practical limitations of absolute monarchy under Louis XVI.
- Categorise the privileges and burdens experienced by the three different Estates.
- Evaluate the structural strengths and weaknesses of the Ancien Régime's government and society.
Show all 12 objectives
- Identify the core political and social ideas of major Enlightenment philosophes.
- Explain how salons and other social networks facilitated the spread of radical ideas in France.
- Analyse the ideological and financial impacts of the American Revolution and War of Independence on the French state.
- Explain the structural weaknesses of the French taxation system and the causes of the royal deficit.
- Compare the financial reform strategies implemented by Turgot, Necker, and Calonne.
- Analyse the reasons why successive attempts to reform royal finances ultimately failed.
- Evaluate the role of the Assembly of Notables in accelerating the collapse of royal authority.
- Analyse the interconnected political, economic, and social crises facing France in the spring of 1789.
- Explain the significance of the debate over voting by order versus voting by head ahead of the Estates-General.
2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (A-level only) – 1795 The origins of the French Revolution, 1774–1789 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the theoretical nature of absolutism versus the practical limitations imposed by parlements and regional customs.
- Assess Louis XVI's personal characteristics, noting his well-meaning nature but fatal indecisiveness in matters of state.
- Detail the structure of the government, including the roles of the King's councils and the intendants in the provinces.
- Analyse the social divisions of the Three Estates, contrasting the tax exemptions of the privileged orders with the heavy direct and indirect taxation on the Third Estate.
- Evaluate the strengths of the Ancien Régime, such as its cultural dominance and military power, against weaknesses like administrative chaos and financial vulnerability.
- Identify key philosophes (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau) and their specific political and social theories.
- Analyse the role of salons, academies, and masonic lodges in disseminating Enlightenment ideas among the French bourgeoisie and liberal nobility.
- Evaluate the extent of the philosophes' influence, noting it primarily affected the literate urban elite rather than the rural peasantry.
- Explain how the American Revolution served as an ideological catalyst, proving that Enlightenment ideals could be successfully implemented in a working constitution.
- Assess the financial impact of the American War of Independence on France, highlighting how the massive debt incurred forced the Crown into a terminal fiscal crisis.
- Identify the structural weaknesses of the Ancien Régime taxation system, particularly the reliance on indirect taxes and the exemption of the First and Second Estates.
- Evaluate Turgot's physiocratic reforms, including the introduction of free trade in grain and the abolition of the corvée, noting the resistance from vested interests.
- Analyse Necker's financial strategy of funding the American War of Independence through loans rather than taxation, and the political impact of his Compte Rendu.
- Assess Calonne's comprehensive reform package of 1786, focusing on his proposed territorial subvention (land tax) and the decision to summon the Assembly of Notables.
- Explain the failure of the Assembly of Notables to endorse financial reforms, highlighting their insistence on convening the Estates-General.
- Trace the political developments from 1787 to 1789, including the clash between the Crown and the parlements, and the subsequent 'Day of the Tiles' in Grenoble.
- Assess the economic state of France by 1789, focusing on the impact of the Eden Treaty, the 1788 harvest failure, and the resulting urban and rural distress.
- Analyse the social and political climate on the eve of the Estates-General, including the drafting of the cahiers de doléances and the debate over voting mechanisms.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use specific terms like 'taille', 'corvée', and 'lettres de cachet' to demonstrate precise knowledge of Ancien Régime burdens and royal powers.
- 💡When evaluating Louis XVI, balance his personal flaws with the systemic, inherited weaknesses of the government structure he was forced to manage.
- 💡Link the social inequalities directly to the financial weaknesses of the state, showing how the exemption of the wealthiest hindered economic stability.
- 💡Name specific philosophes and link them to their distinct ideas (e.g., Montesquieu and the separation of powers) rather than discussing 'the Enlightenment' as a vague concept.
- 💡Discuss the salons as crucial vehicles for intellectual exchange, highlighting the role of women as hostesses in facilitating these political discussions.
- 💡When assessing the causes of the French Revolution, explicitly connect the ideological inspiration of the American Revolution with its disastrous financial consequences for the French Crown.
- 💡When evaluating the failure of financial reforms, explicitly link the Controllers-General's proposals to the entrenched power of the parlements and the nobility.
- 💡Use the Compte Rendu as a key piece of evidence when discussing how public perception of royal finances diverged from the economic reality.
- 💡Contrast Turgot's physiocratic approach with Necker's administrative approach to demonstrate a nuanced understanding of royal finance.
- 💡Use the drafting of the cahiers de doléances to provide specific evidence of the social and economic grievances held by different estates in 1789.
- 💡When discussing the 'Revolt of the Nobles', emphasise how the privileged orders inadvertently paved the way for the revolution by undermining absolute royal authority.
- 💡Link the short-term economic trigger of the 1788 harvest failure to the long-term structural weaknesses of the French economy to build a strong analytical argument.
Common Mistakes
- Error: Claiming Louis XVI was a tyrant who ruled with unlimited practical power. Correction: Acknowledge that while his power was theoretically absolute, it was heavily restricted by parlements, entrenched noble privileges, and regional laws.
- Error: Stating the Third Estate consisted only of poor peasants. Correction: Recognise that the Third Estate was highly diverse, encompassing wealthy bourgeoisie, urban workers (sans-culottes), and rural peasantry.
- Error: Assuming the First and Second Estates paid absolutely no taxes. Correction: Note that while they were exempt from the main direct tax (the taille), they did pay some indirect taxes and occasionally agreed to voluntary contributions (don gratuit).
- Error: Arguing that the philosophes actively plotted to overthrow the monarchy and start a violent revolution. Correction: Clarify that most philosophes advocated for gradual reform, constitutional monarchy, or enlightened despotism, not violent republican revolution.
- Error: Overstating the immediate influence of Enlightenment texts on the rural peasantry. Correction: Specify that these ideas circulated primarily among the educated urban bourgeoisie and liberal nobility, as literacy rates in rural areas were low.
- Error: Treating the American Revolution solely as an ideological inspiration for France. Correction: Emphasise the dual impact: it provided ideological inspiration but also caused a crippling financial crisis due to the cost of French military intervention.
- Claiming Necker's Compte Rendu accurately reflected the financial crisis; in reality, it concealed the deficit by omitting extraordinary war expenditure to maintain public credit.
- Confusing the chronological order of the Controllers-General; remember the sequence is Turgot, Necker, then Calonne.
- Stating that the financial crisis was solely caused by Marie Antoinette's spending; correct this by emphasising that structural tax inefficiencies and war debts were the primary causes.
- Assuming the Assembly of Notables was a democratic body; correct this by noting it was a hand-picked group of high-ranking nobles, clergy, and officials.
- Treating the economic crisis and political crisis as separate events; ensure you explain how soaring bread prices directly fuelled political radicalisation among the urban poor.
- Stating that the Third Estate wanted to overthrow the monarchy in May 1789; correct this by explaining they initially sought a constitutional monarchy and fairer representation.