2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945 – Fascist foreign policies, 1926–1940 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History

This topic examines Mussolini's foreign policy from 1926 to 1940, focusing on his aims, methods and the consequences of his actions. It covers key events such as the Corfu Incident, the Locarno Treaties, the Ethiopian War, intervention in the Spanish Civil War, the annexation of Albania and the Pact of Steel. Students must understand how these events shaped Italy's relationship with Britain, France and Germany, and how they contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

Understanding this topic is crucial for analysing the nature of fascist foreign policy and its impact on international relations in the 1930s. It also provides insight into Mussolini's domestic position, as foreign policy successes and failures affected his popularity and control. This topic connects to broader themes of appeasement, the failure of the League of Nations and the origins of WWII, making it essential for A-level students.

• →Mussolini's foreign policy aims: expansion of empire, revision of the Treaty of Versailles, anti-communism, and establishing Italy as a great power.
• →The role of propaganda and domestic politics: foreign policy victories were used to bolster Mussolini's image and distract from economic problems.
• →The shift from cooperation with Britain and France to alliance with Nazi Germany, driven by the Ethiopian War and sanctions.
• →The impact of the League of Nations and appeasement on Italy's actions, particularly the failure to prevent the conquest of Ethiopia.
• →The economic and military constraints on Italian foreign policy, which limited Mussolini's ambitions and contributed to his dependence on Hitler.

• Identify the ideological link between the restoration of national prestige and the myth of ancient Rome in Fascist propaganda.
• Explain the strategic and ideological significance of 'Mare Nostrum', including the desire to control Mediterranean naval routes.
• Analyse the motivations behind the African empire, particularly the invasion of Abyssinia as a means to avenge Adwa and gain resources.
• Evaluate how foreign policy ambitions were used to distract from domestic economic issues and consolidate Mussolini's personal dictatorship.
• Assess Mussolini's diplomatic strategies in maintaining cooperative relations with Britain and France prior to 1935.
• Explain the strategic importance of Austria as a buffer state and Mussolini's actions to protect it from German annexation in 1934.
• Analyse the formation and objectives of the Stresa Front as a collective response to German rearmament.
• Evaluate the contradictions between Mussolini's role as a European statesman and his underlying expansionist ambitions.
• Explain the ideological and economic motivations behind Mussolini's drive for an African empire, including the desire for autarky and living space.
• Detail the ruthless conduct of the Abyssinian war, specifically the authorised use of chemical weapons and mass civilian reprisals.
• Analyse the domestic impact, noting how League of Nations sanctions were manipulated by fascist propaganda to create a surge in national unity.
• Evaluate the international consequences, particularly how the invasion destroyed the Stresa Front and pushed Italy into a closer relationship with Nazi Germany.
• Assess the impact of the Spanish Civil War on Italy, focusing on the massive economic cost and the depletion of military stockpiles.
• Trace the changing relations with Germany, from the Stresa Front's collapse to the ideological and military alignment solidified by the 1939 Pact of Steel.
• Explain the invasion of Albania as a reactive measure by Mussolini to assert Italian dominance in the Balkans and mirror Hitler's territorial gains.
• Evaluate the reasons for Italy's 'non-belligerence' in 1939, contrasting the aggressive rhetoric of the Pact of Steel with the reality of severe military unpreparedness.
• Analyse the extent of Italy's military weakness by 1940, including outdated weaponry, lack of industrial capacity, and insufficient raw materials.

• 💡Use the phrase 'mutilated victory' to contextualise why the restoration of prestige was so vital to Mussolini's domestic popularity.
• 💡Link the concept of 'Mare Nostrum' directly to Italy's geopolitical tensions with Britain and France over naval bases and trade routes.
• 💡When discussing the African empire, explicitly mention Abyssinia and Libya as concrete examples of Fascist expansionism.
• 💡Use the 1934 assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss as a concrete example of Mussolini acting to contain German influence.
• 💡Discuss the Stresa Front as the high point of Mussolini's 'statesman' phase before the Abyssinian Crisis alienated him from the West.
• 💡Contrast Mussolini's diplomatic cooperation with Britain and France with his simultaneous preparations for imperial expansion.
• 💡Use the phrase 'peak of consensus' when discussing Mussolini's domestic popularity in 1936 following the declaration of the empire.
• 💡Link the conduct of the war, such as the use of poison gas, to the broader fascist glorification of violence and ruthlessness.
• 💡Assess the long-term economic drain of occupying Abyssinia when evaluating the overall success of Mussolini's imperial policy.
• 💡Connect Italy's military unpreparedness in 1940 directly to the prolonged interventions in Abyssinia and the Spanish Civil War.
• 💡Analyse the Pact of Steel as a diplomatic blunder by Mussolini, who committed Italy to an offensive alliance without securing a guaranteed timeline for war.
• 💡Use the concept of 'parallel war' to explain Mussolini's motivations for invading Albania and his eventual entry into the Second World War.
• 💡Always link foreign policy events to Mussolini's domestic situation, as examiners expect analysis of how foreign policy affected his popularity and control.
• 💡Use precise dates and names of treaties to demonstrate accurate knowledge; avoid vague references like 'the 1930s' without specifics.
• 💡When evaluating aims, distinguish between short-term propaganda gains and long-term strategic failures, and support with evidence.

• Error: Assuming 'Mare Nostrum' was purely a defensive strategy. Correction: Recognise that it was an aggressive, expansionist ambition aimed at challenging British and French dominance in the Mediterranean.
• Error: Treating the invasion of Abyssinia solely as an economic venture. Correction: Acknowledge the crucial ideological motivation of restoring prestige by avenging the historical Italian defeat at Adwa in 1896.
• Error: Viewing Mussolini's foreign policy as entirely consistent from 1922. Correction: Understand that his ambitions became markedly more aggressive and imperialistic in the 1930s compared to his earlier, more cautious approach.
• Error: Confusing the Stresa Front with a formal military alliance. Correction: Define the Stresa Front as a diplomatic declaration against German rearmament, not a binding military pact.
• Error: Assuming Mussolini was always allied with Hitler. Correction: Emphasise that in 1934, Mussolini actively opposed Hitler's ambitions in Austria by mobilising Italian troops to the border.
• Error: Overlooking the ambiguity of the Stresa Front regarding colonial expansion. Correction: Note that Mussolini believed the Stresa Front gave him tacit approval from Britain and France to pursue his African ambitions.
• Claiming the invasion of Abyssinia was a purely defensive reaction to border skirmishes; correction: recognise that the Wal Wal incident was a pretext for a long-planned imperial expansion.
• Stating that the League of Nations sanctions crippled the Italian war effort; correction: note that sanctions excluded vital resources like oil and coal, making them largely ineffective while boosting domestic support for the regime.
• Assuming the war was universally popular abroad; correction: distinguish between the domestic propaganda success and the international outrage that alienated Britain and France.
• Confusing Italy's 1939 status as strict neutrality; correction: use Mussolini's specific term 'non-belligerence' to show he still supported Germany ideologically but was not yet fighting.
• Assuming the Pact of Steel forced Italy into war in 1939; correction: note that Mussolini had informed Hitler that Italy would not be ready for war until at least 1943, making the 1939 outbreak premature for Italy.
• Stating the invasion of Albania was a major military triumph; correction: recognise that while successful, it was against a very weak opponent and highlighted logistical flaws in the Italian military.
• Misconception: Mussolini's foreign policy was consistently successful and popular. Correction: While some successes like Ethiopia boosted popularity, the costs of sanctions and the Spanish Civil War, and later military failures, eroded support.
• Misconception: Italy was a major military power capable of independent action. Correction: Italy was economically and militarily weaker than Britain, France and Germany, and Mussolini often had to rely on German support.
• Misconception: The Pact of Steel was a defensive alliance only. Correction: It was an offensive and defensive alliance that committed Italy to support Germany in war, which Mussolini reluctantly accepted despite unpreparedness.

1. 1Week 1: Create a detailed timeline of key events from 1926 to 1940, including Corfu, Locarno, Ethiopia, Spain, Albania and the Pact of Steel.
2. 2Week 1: Read textbook chapters and make notes on Mussolini's aims and the methods he used to achieve them.
3. 3Week 2: Practice source analysis and essay planning on topics like the impact of the Ethiopian War and the reasons for the Axis alliance.
4. 4Week 2: Complete past exam questions and review mark schemes to understand assessment objectives.
5. 5Ongoing: Use flashcards for key dates and terms, and test yourself with active recall questions.

• 📋Source-based question: Assess the value of a source to a historian studying Mussolini's foreign policy. Advice: Analyse provenance, content and tone, and use own knowledge to contextualise.
• 📋Essay question: 'Mussolini's foreign policy was a complete failure.' Assess the validity of this view. Advice: Present a balanced argument with specific examples of successes and failures, and reach a clear judgement.
• 📋Chronology question: Explain the significance of the Ethiopian War for Mussolini's foreign policy. Advice: Focus on causes, consequences and links to other events.