2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 – Stalin’s rise to power, 1924–1929 — AQA A-Level History
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2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 – Stalin’s rise to power, 1924–1929 explained
Lenin’s declining health and death in 1924 created a profound power vacuum, sparking a fierce power struggle over the nature of leadership and ideology.
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The suppression of Lenin's Testament, which criticised all major contenders but particularly urged Stalin's removal, fundamentally altered the succession. The struggle exposed deep divisions among the contenders. Trotsky possessed brilliance and Red Army support but lacked political tact. Stalin, often underestimated, leveraged his role as General Secretary to build patronage. Zinoviev and Kamenev had strong local power bases but were seen as disloyal in 1917. Bukharin was popular and a leading theorist but lacked political cunning, while Rykov and Tomsky held significant administrative and trade union influence but lacked the ruthless drive required to outmanoeuvre Stalin.
Ideological debates and issues in the leadership struggle: NEP and industrialisation; 'permanent revolution' versus 'Socialism in One Country'; how and why Stalin became party leader and the outcome for the other contenders
The leadership struggle was defined by intense ideological debates over economic policy and international strategy. The Left advocated rapid industrialisation and abandoning the NEP, while the Right supported the NEP's gradualist approach. Simultaneously, Trotsky’s 'Permanent Revolution' demanded international uprisings, contrasting sharply with Stalin’s pragmatic 'Socialism in One Country', which appealed to a war-weary party. Stalin became leader by masterfully exploiting these debates, first allying with the Right to defeat the Left, then adopting the Left's economic policies to crush the Right. Ultimately, Stalin secured absolute control. The other contenders faced grim outcomes: Trotsky was exiled and later assassinated, while Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, and Rykov were executed during the purges, and Tomsky committed suicide.
Economic developments: reasons for and impact of the 'Great Turn'; the economic shift; the launch of the first Five Year Plan and the decision to collectivise
The 'Great Turn' of 1928 marked a radical economic shift from Lenin's gradualist New Economic Policy (NEP) to a command economy. Stalin's reasons included the 1927/28 grain procurement crisis, ideological desires to eliminate capitalist 'Nepmen' and 'kulaks', and the need for rapid industrialisation to defend against foreign threats. The impact was profound, centralising state control over production. This shift was implemented through the launch of the first Five Year Plan (1928–1932), which set ambitious quotas for heavy industries like coal and steel. Simultaneously, the decision to collectivise agriculture aimed to fund industrialisation by forcing peasants into state-controlled farms (Kolkhozy), sparking massive resistance.
Government, propaganda and the beginning of the Stalinist cult; Stalin's attitude to foreign powers: China; Germany and the Treaty of Berlin; changes in the Comintern
Between 1924 and 1929, Soviet government became increasingly centralised as propaganda laid the foundations of the Stalinist cult. Stalin was portrayed as Lenin's loyal disciple, using imagery to elevate his status above rivals. His attitude to foreign powers reflected 'Socialism in One Country', prioritising Soviet security. In China, Stalin pragmatically backed the nationalist Guomindang over the Chinese Communists, leading to the 1927 Shanghai Massacre. With Germany, he maintained the cooperative Treaty of Berlin (1926), a neutrality pact reaffirming the 1922 Rapallo agreement. Concurrently, changes in the Comintern saw it shift from promoting independent revolutions to serving strictly as an instrument of Soviet foreign policy.
Your focus
- Analyse the impact of Lenin's Testament on the power struggle and the contenders' reputations.
- Evaluate the character, strengths, and weaknesses of all seven major contenders for power.
- Explain how ideological differences and views on the nature of leadership contributed to the divisions among the Bolsheviks.
Show all 12 objectives
- Compare the ideological concepts of 'Permanent Revolution' and 'Socialism in One Country'.
- Analyse the debates surrounding the continuation of the NEP versus the need for rapid industrialisation.
- Explain the political strategies Stalin used to become party leader and describe the final outcomes for his rivals.
- Explain the political, economic, and ideological reasons for the 'Great Turn'.
- Analyse the mechanisms and initial impacts of the first Five Year Plan on Soviet industry.
- Evaluate the motivations behind the decision to collectivise Soviet agriculture.
- Analyse the methods used to develop government control and the early Stalinist cult through propaganda.
- Evaluate Stalin's pragmatic foreign policy decisions regarding China and the Treaty of Berlin with Germany.
- Explain the ideological and practical changes imposed on the Comintern during Stalin's rise to power.
2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 – Stalin’s rise to power, 1924–1929 exam tips
Marking Points
- Assess how the suppression of Lenin's Testament by the Central Committee protected Stalin and damaged Trotsky's chances of assuming leadership.
- Evaluate the ideological divisions regarding the nature of leadership, specifically the shift from collective leadership to a single dictator.
- Analyse Stalin's strengths, particularly his control over the party apparatus as General Secretary, which allowed him to appoint loyalists.
- Compare the characters, strengths, and weaknesses of the Left (Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev) and the Right (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky) in their failure to unite against Stalin.
- Analyse the ideological conflict between 'Permanent Revolution' and 'Socialism in One Country', explaining why Stalin's policy was more appealing to the party membership.
- Evaluate the debate over the New Economic Policy (NEP) and industrialisation, distinguishing between the positions of the Left Opposition and the Right Opposition.
- Explain the tactical alliances Stalin formed, such as the Triumvirate and the Duumvirate, to isolate and defeat his rivals sequentially.
- Detail the specific outcomes for the defeated contenders, tracing their fall from power to their eventual exile, suicide, or execution in the 1930s.
- Identify the ideological and practical reasons for abandoning the NEP, such as the 1927/28 grain procurement crisis and the desire to achieve true socialism.
- Explain the economic shift towards a command economy managed by Gosplan.
- Evaluate the launch of the first Five Year Plan, focusing on its emphasis on heavy industry and the use of unrealistic production targets.
- Analyse the decision to collectivise agriculture as a mechanism to extract grain surpluses to feed urban workers and fund industrial imports.
- Assess how propaganda and the manipulation of Lenin's legacy were used to establish the early Stalinist cult and centralise government control.
- Explain Stalin's pragmatic attitude towards China, specifically his controversial support for Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) and the Guomindang.
- Analyse the significance of the 1926 Treaty of Berlin as a neutrality pact continuing the diplomatic relationship with Germany established at Rapallo.
- Evaluate the changes in the Comintern, noting its transformation into a tool for Soviet state interests and Stalin's factional struggles.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When evaluating the contenders, contrast Stalin's bureaucratic power base with Trotsky's reliance on personal charisma and the Red Army.
- 💡Use Lenin's Testament as a pivotal piece of evidence to explain why the contenders' initial decisions inadvertently facilitated Stalin's rise.
- 💡Avoid narrative descriptions of the contenders; instead, explicitly link their specific character traits and weaknesses to their ultimate political defeat.
- 💡Link Stalin's ideological flexibility to his political success, showing how he adapted his stance on the NEP to outmanoeuvre different factions.
- 💡When discussing 'Socialism in One Country', emphasise its psychological appeal to a party exhausted by war and disappointed by the failure of European revolutions.
- 💡Use the outcomes of the contenders to demonstrate the transition from a collective leadership to a totalitarian dictatorship.
- 💡Link the economic shift of the 'Great Turn' directly to Stalin's political consolidation and his defeat of Bukharin and the Right Opposition.
- 💡Use specific terminology such as 'command economy', 'Gosplan', 'Nepmen', and 'kulaks' to demonstrate precise historical knowledge.
- 💡When evaluating the impact of the first Five Year Plan, contrast the official propaganda successes with the reality of chaotic implementation and human cost.
- 💡Connect Stalin's foreign policy decisions, such as his actions in China, to his domestic ideological battle for 'Socialism in One Country' against Trotsky's 'Permanent Revolution'.
- 💡Use the Treaty of Berlin to demonstrate how the Soviet government prioritised national security and pragmatic diplomacy over ideological purity.
- 💡Discuss how changes in the Comintern reflected Stalin's growing control over the global communist movement and his defeat of the Left Opposition.
Common Mistakes
- Error: Claiming Lenin's Testament only criticised Stalin. Correction: Acknowledge that the Testament contained criticisms of all the main contenders, including Trotsky, Bukharin, Kamenev, and Zinoviev, which is why they all agreed to suppress it.
- Error: Assuming Trotsky was the official heir apparent. Correction: Recognise that the Bolsheviks did not have a formal succession process and officially favoured collective leadership over a single heir.
- Error: Ignoring the roles of Rykov and Tomsky. Correction: Include Rykov (Chairman of Sovnarkom) and Tomsky (head of the trade unions) as significant figures with distinct power bases and weaknesses in the Right Opposition.
- Error: Stating that Stalin always opposed the NEP. Correction: Clarify that Stalin supported the NEP while allied with Bukharin and the Right, only turning against it in 1928 to defeat them and launch rapid industrialisation.
- Error: Treating the leadership struggle as purely a clash of personalities. Correction: Emphasise that genuine ideological debates over the NEP and foreign policy were central to the factional conflicts and Stalin's strategic manoeuvring.
- Error: Confusing the timelines of the contenders' downfalls. Correction: Ensure accurate sequencing, noting that the Left (Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev) was defeated by 1927, before Stalin turned on the Right (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky) in 1928-1929.
- Error: Confusing the first Five Year Plan with later plans. Correction: Ensure you specifically link the first Five Year Plan (1928-1932) to the initial focus on heavy industry and the 'Great Turn', rather than later focuses on rearmament or consumer goods.
- Error: Stating collectivisation was purely an economic decision. Correction: Acknowledge the ideological motivation to destroy the 'kulak' class and extend Party control over the countryside.
- Error: Claiming the 1923 'scissors crisis' was the immediate trigger for abandoning the NEP. Correction: Note that while the 1923 scissors crisis highlighted NEP's flaws, the immediate catalyst for the 'Great Turn' was the 1927/28 grain procurement crisis combined with Stalin's political manoeuvring.
- Error: Assuming the Stalinist cult of personality was fully developed by 1929. Correction: Describe this period as the beginning or foundation of the cult, primarily focused on linking Stalin to Lenin, rather than the extreme deification seen in the 1930s.
- Error: Claiming Stalin supported the Chinese Communist Party unconditionally. Correction: Specify that Stalin ordered the CCP to ally with the nationalist Guomindang, which ultimately led to the CCP's betrayal and massacre in 1927.
- Error: Stating the 1926 Treaty of Berlin secured new military ties. Correction: Identify the Treaty of Berlin as a neutrality pact that reaffirmed the 1922 Rapallo agreement, rather than a new military alliance.