2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The Global War, 1955–1963 — AQA A-Level History
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2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The Global War, 1955–1963 explained
Khrushchev’s policy of 'peaceful coexistence' aimed to reduce East-West tensions while maintaining Soviet security, yet it was severely tested by Eastern Bloc instability.
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In 1956, demands for reform led to risings in Poland and Hungary. While Poland secured minor concessions under Gomulka, the Hungarian Uprising was brutally crushed by Soviet intervention to prevent withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, demonstrating the limits of Soviet tolerance. Despite this, diplomatic engagement continued through high-profile exchanges of visits, notably Khrushchev’s 1959 tour of the USA and talks at Camp David. However, the degree of peaceful coexistence remained fragile, collapsing dramatically at the 1960 Paris Summit following the U-2 spy plane crisis.
Conflict in Asia: Indo-China under Ho Chi-Minh in the North and Diem in the South; formation of NLF; Kennedy's policies towards Indo-China and Diem's assassination
Following the Geneva Accords, Indo-China was divided into a communist North led by Ho Chi-Minh and a capitalist South governed by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem’s corrupt, nepotistic regime alienated the Southern population, prompting the formation of the NLF in 1960 to wage a guerrilla insurgency. Viewing Vietnam through the lens of the Domino Theory, Kennedy’s policies towards Indo-China escalated US involvement by increasing financial aid and deploying thousands of military advisors. However, Diem’s continued unpopularity, exacerbated by the 1963 Buddhist Crisis, made him a liability. In 1963, with tacit US approval, a military coup resulted in Diem's assassination, deepening American entanglement in the conflict in Asia.
Confrontation between the superpowers: US attitudes to Cuba and developments leading to the missile crisis; the 13 days; the significance of the crisis
The US viewed Cuba as its strategic backyard, reacting to Castro's revolution with embargoes and the disastrous 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion. These developments, alongside US missiles in Turkey, prompted Khrushchev to secretly deploy nuclear missiles to Cuba in 1962. The ensuing '13 days' saw Kennedy reject air strikes for a naval quarantine. The crisis peaked when a US U-2 plane was shot down, but was resolved via a secret deal: the USSR withdrew Cuban missiles for a US pledge not to invade Cuba and the removal of Turkish missiles. The significance was profound, leading to the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, the Washington-Moscow hotline, and a shift towards détente as both superpowers recognised the reality of Mutually Assured Destruction.
Your focus
- Compare the causes and Soviet responses to the 1956 uprisings in Poland and Hungary.
- Evaluate the extent to which 'peaceful coexistence' improved East-West relations between 1955 and 1960.
- Analyse the reasons for the failure of the 1960 Paris Summit and its impact on the Cold War.
Show all 9 objectives
- Contrast the leadership and domestic policies of Ho Chi-Minh in the North and Diem in the South.
- Explain the causes behind the formation of the NLF and its objectives in South Vietnam.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of Kennedy's policies in stabilising South Vietnam prior to Diem's assassination.
- Analyse the reasons behind US hostility towards Castro's Cuba prior to 1962.
- Trace the chronological escalation and resolution of the 13-day missile crisis.
- Evaluate the short-term and long-term significance of the crisis on superpower relations.
2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The Global War, 1955–1963 exam tips
Marking Points
- Evaluate the motivations behind Khrushchev's 'peaceful coexistence' and how it differed from Stalinist foreign policy.
- Analyse the causes and outcomes of the 1956 crises in Poland and Hungary, contrasting the Soviet responses to Gomulka and Nagy.
- Assess the impact of the Soviet intervention in Hungary on East-West relations and Western perceptions of Soviet aggression.
- Examine the significance of diplomatic visits, such as Khrushchev's 1959 US tour, in temporarily thawing Cold War tensions.
- Explain the collapse of the 1960 Paris Summit, focusing on the U-2 crisis and its role in renewing East-West hostility.
- Contrast the political and social structures of Indo-China under Ho Chi-Minh in the North with Ngo Dinh Diem in the South.
- Analyse the domestic factors in South Vietnam that led to the formation of the NLF in 1960.
- Evaluate Kennedy's policies towards Indo-China, including his application of the Domino Theory and strategy of 'Flexible Response'.
- Assess the impact of the 1963 Buddhist Crisis and Diem's authoritarian policies on US-South Vietnamese relations.
- Examine the circumstances surrounding Diem's assassination in 1963 and its consequences for subsequent US policy in Vietnam.
- Explain US attitudes towards Cuba, focusing on economic interests and the fear of a socialist state in the Western Hemisphere.
- Detail the developments leading to the crisis, including the Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose, and Soviet strategic aims.
- Analyse the decision-making during the 13 days, contrasting Kennedy's ExComm options like air strikes versus the naval quarantine.
- Evaluate the significance of the crisis, particularly the establishment of the hotline and the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use the contrasting Soviet responses to Poland and Hungary to evaluate the limits of Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation policy.
- 💡When discussing 'peaceful coexistence', provide specific examples of both cooperation (Camp David) and conflict (Hungarian intervention) to show nuance.
- 💡Link the failure of the 1960 Paris Summit to the subsequent escalation of tensions that culminated in the Berlin and Cuban crises.
- 💡Analyse Kennedy's policies towards Indo-China as a transitional phase between Eisenhower's initial support and Johnson's full-scale military escalation.
- 💡Use the formation of the NLF to demonstrate how Diem's domestic failures directly fuelled the communist insurgency in the South.
- 💡Evaluate Diem's assassination as a turning point that inadvertently increased US responsibility for the survival of South Vietnam.
- 💡Use the term 'quarantine' rather than 'blockade', as Kennedy did, to explain how the US avoided an act of war under international law.
- 💡When assessing significance, link the immediate outcomes (like the hotline) to long-term shifts in Cold War diplomacy and Mutually Assured Destruction.
- 💡Contrast the perspectives of Kennedy and Khrushchev to evaluate who 'won' the crisis, noting both domestic and international consequences for each leader.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the outcomes in Poland and Hungary; correct by noting Poland achieved a compromise under Gomulka, whereas Hungary faced full Soviet military intervention after Nagy threatened to leave the Warsaw Pact.
- Assuming 'peaceful coexistence' meant an end to Cold War rivalry; correct by explaining it meant avoiding nuclear war while continuing ideological and economic competition.
- Stating the Paris Summit was a success; correct by detailing its collapse due to the U-2 spy plane incident before substantive talks could begin.
- Claiming Kennedy sent combat troops to Vietnam; correct by specifying he sent military advisors and financial aid, whereas Johnson later deployed ground combat troops.
- Equating the NLF entirely with the North Vietnamese Army; correct by defining the NLF (Viet Cong) as a broad-based Southern insurgent coalition, albeit supported and directed by the North.
- Stating that the persecution of Buddhists caused the formation of the NLF; the NLF was formed in 1960 due to Diem's broader authoritarianism, while the major Buddhist Crisis occurred later in 1963.
- Claiming the US publicly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey; the Turkish missile removal was a secret concession, not part of the public resolution.
- Stating that the crisis immediately ended the Cold War; it initiated a period of détente but superpower rivalry continued globally.
- Ignoring the role of Castro; students often treat Cuba merely as a passive stage, whereas Castro actively sought Soviet protection after US aggression.