2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The ending of the Cold War, 1985–1991 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History
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2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The ending of the Cold War, 1985–1991 (A-level only) explained
Mikhail Gorbachev's ascension in 1985 marked a pivotal shift in Soviet policy, driven by immense internal and external pressures.
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The primary catalyst for his 'New Political Thinking' was the stagnant Soviet economy, which could no longer sustain the arms race, the Afghan war, or subsidise the Eastern Bloc. Gorbachev recognised the practicalities of this crisis: without reducing Cold War tensions, domestic reform (Perestroika) was impossible. His significance lies in his willingness to abandon Marxist-Leninist dogma in foreign policy, pursuing arms reduction treaties like the INF Treaty and withdrawing from Afghanistan. By prioritising economic survival over ideological expansion, Gorbachev fundamentally altered superpower relations, inadvertently accelerating the collapse of the Soviet system and ending the Cold War.
The summits between the USA and the USSR, including Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington and Moscow; Reagan; star wars; Bush and the US response
The late 1980s witnessed a transformation in US-Soviet relations, driven by a series of pivotal summits. At Geneva (1985), Reagan and Gorbachev established a crucial personal rapport, though no major agreements were signed. Reykjavik (1986) saw dramatic proposals for nuclear disarmament, ultimately stalling over Reagan's refusal to abandon the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or 'Star Wars'). However, this paved the way for the Washington summit (1987), where the historic Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed. The Moscow summit (1988) further solidified this détente. Following Reagan, President George H.W. Bush initially paused to reassess policy but soon responded positively to Soviet concessions, culminating in the Malta Summit (1989) which effectively declared the Cold War over.
The collapse of Communism in the Eastern European soviet satellite states; the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine and significance of events of 1989
The collapse of Communism across Eastern European Soviet satellite states in 1989 fundamentally altered the global geopolitical landscape. A primary catalyst was Gorbachev's abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine, replacing the threat of Soviet military intervention with the 'Sinatra Doctrine', which allowed Warsaw Pact nations to determine their own internal affairs. This policy shift emboldened opposition movements. The events of 1989 cascaded rapidly: Poland held semi-free elections leading to a Solidarity-led government; Hungary dismantled its border fence with Austria, creating a hole in the Iron Curtain; and mass protests in East Germany culminated in the historic fall of the Berlin Wall in November. These largely peaceful revolutions signified the definitive end of Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe.
The ending of Cold War tensions in Asia: Afghanistan; the Americas: Cuba, Nicaragua and El Salvador; Africa: Angola and Ethiopia; the end of the Cold War: the Malta summit and its aftermath, including the reunification of Germany; the collapse of the USSR and resignation of Gorbachev
The late 1980s saw the global de-escalation of Cold War proxy conflicts. In Asia, Gorbachev withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan by 1989, ending a draining quagmire. In the Americas, Soviet subsidies to Cuba ceased, while peace accords were negotiated in Nicaragua and El Salvador, reducing US-Soviet friction. In Africa, superpower disengagement facilitated peace settlements in Angola and the fall of the Marxist regime in Ethiopia. The 1989 Malta Summit between Bush and Gorbachev symbolically ended the Cold War, paving the way for the rapid reunification of Germany in 1990. Ultimately, Gorbachev's domestic reforms failed to prevent nationalist uprisings, leading to the collapse of the USSR and his resignation in December 1991.
Your focus
- Identify the severe economic problems that pressured the Soviet leadership in the mid-1980s.
- Explain the principles of Gorbachev's 'New Political Thinking' and how they differed from previous Soviet foreign policy.
- Evaluate the significance of Gorbachev's leadership in prioritising practical economic survival over ideological confrontation.
Show all 12 objectives
- Trace the chronological progression and specific outcomes of the Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington and Moscow summits.
- Analyse the impact of Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative on US-Soviet arms control negotiations.
- Evaluate George H.W. Bush's diplomatic response to the shifting geopolitical landscape of the late 1980s.
- Explain the meaning and impact of the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine on Eastern Europe.
- Describe the sequence and specific characteristics of the anti-communist revolutions in the satellite states during 1989.
- Evaluate the short-term and long-term significance of the events of 1989 for the broader Cold War conflict.
- Explain how Soviet withdrawal impacted proxy conflicts in Afghanistan, the Americas, and Africa.
- Analyse the diplomatic significance of the Malta Summit and the process of German reunification.
- Evaluate the domestic and international factors that led to the collapse of the USSR and Gorbachev's resignation.
2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 – The ending of the Cold War, 1985–1991 (A-level only) exam tips
Marking Points
- Identify the specific economic pressures facing the USSR by 1985, including declining growth rates, agricultural failures, and the unsustainable financial burden of the military-industrial complex.
- Explain the concept of 'New Political Thinking', focusing on Gorbachev's shift away from class struggle towards universal human interests and mutual security.
- Evaluate the practicalities that forced Gorbachev's hand, such as the inability to match the US Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) technologically or financially.
- Assess Gorbachev's significance as a leader, contrasting his reformist approach and willingness to negotiate with the stagnation of his predecessors (Brezhnev, Andropov, Chernenko).
- Evaluate the significance of the Geneva (1985) and Moscow (1988) summits in building trust between Reagan and Gorbachev.
- Analyse how Reagan's commitment to the Strategic Defense Initiative ('Star Wars') caused the collapse of talks at Reykjavik (1986) but pressured the USSR economically.
- Assess the importance of the Washington summit (1987) and the signing of the INF Treaty in reducing nuclear stockpiles.
- Explain George H.W. Bush's initial 'pause' in 1989 and his subsequent diplomatic response to the changing Soviet landscape.
- Explain the ideological and practical implications of Gorbachev abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine.
- Trace the domino effect of the events of 1989, starting with Poland's Solidarity movement and Hungary's border opening.
- Analyse the significance of the fall of the Berlin Wall as both a physical and symbolic end to Soviet control in Eastern Europe.
- Evaluate the internal economic and political weaknesses within the satellite states that made them vulnerable to rapid collapse once Soviet military backing was withdrawn.
- Explain the impact of Soviet economic decline on Gorbachev's decision to withdraw from Afghanistan and cut subsidies to Cuba and Marxist regimes in Africa.
- Analyse how the cessation of superpower funding facilitated negotiated settlements in Central America, specifically Nicaragua and El Salvador.
- Evaluate the significance of the 1989 Malta Summit as a diplomatic milestone that formally acknowledged the end of the Cold War.
- Assess the rapid process of German reunification in 1990 and how Gorbachev's non-interventionist stance enabled it.
- Examine the internal political and economic pressures, including the August 1991 coup, that culminated in the dissolution of the USSR and Gorbachev's resignation.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When evaluating Gorbachev's significance, explicitly connect his foreign policy decisions (like arms control) to his domestic economic imperatives.
- 💡Use the term 'New Political Thinking' accurately, demonstrating an understanding of how it replaced the Brezhnev Doctrine.
- 💡Contrast the economic realities of the USSR in the 1980s with the ideological claims of the Soviet state to highlight the practical necessity of Gorbachev's reforms.
- 💡When evaluating Reagan's role, balance his hardline anti-communist rhetoric and SDI funding with his willingness to negotiate and build a personal relationship with Gorbachev.
- 💡Use the specific outcomes of each summit to trace the chronological development of the end of the Cold War, rather than grouping them as a single event.
- 💡Contrast the diplomatic approaches of Reagan and Bush to demonstrate a nuanced understanding of the US response to Soviet decline.
- 💡Emphasise the causal link between Gorbachev's foreign policy shifts (ending the Brezhnev Doctrine) and the emboldening of domestic opposition groups in Eastern Europe.
- 💡Use specific examples from different countries (e.g., Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Romania) to illustrate the variety of ways in which communist regimes fell in 1989.
- 💡When discussing the significance of 1989, ensure you link the events back to the broader context of the ending of the Cold War.
- 💡Link regional de-escalation in Asia, Africa, and the Americas directly to Gorbachev's 'New Political Thinking' and the Soviet economic crisis.
- 💡When discussing German reunification, highlight the diplomatic negotiations, such as the Two Plus Four Agreement, that secured Soviet agreement for a unified Germany to join NATO.
- 💡Use the August 1991 coup attempt as a pivotal turning point that fatally undermined Gorbachev's authority and accelerated the collapse of the USSR.
Common Mistakes
- Arguing that Gorbachev intended to end the Soviet Union; correction: clarify that his reforms and 'New Thinking' were designed to save and strengthen the socialist system, not dismantle it.
- Ignoring the domestic economic drivers of foreign policy; correction: explicitly link Gorbachev's diplomatic concessions to the urgent need to divert funds from the military to domestic economic restructuring (Perestroika).
- Attributing the end of the Cold War solely to US pressure; correction: balance the narrative by emphasising Gorbachev's agency and the internal systemic failures of the Soviet economy as primary catalysts.
- Error: Claiming the INF Treaty was signed at Reykjavik. Correction: The INF Treaty was signed at the Washington summit in 1987; Reykjavik ended without a formal agreement due to disagreements over SDI.
- Error: Assuming George H.W. Bush immediately continued Reagan's rapid pace of diplomacy. Correction: Bush initiated a strategic 'pause' upon taking office in 1989 to reassess US-Soviet relations before re-engaging.
- Error: Stating that 'Star Wars' was a fully operational defence system. Correction: SDI was a proposed, theoretical missile defence system that never became fully operational, though its economic threat was highly significant.
- Error: Stating that the Soviet Union used military force to suppress the 1989 revolutions. Correction: Gorbachev explicitly refused to use Soviet troops to prop up Eastern European regimes, marking the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine.
- Error: Treating the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe as a single, uniform event. Correction: The collapse occurred differently in each satellite state, ranging from negotiated transitions in Poland to violent revolution in Romania.
- Error: Confusing the collapse of the Eastern European satellite states in 1989 with the collapse of the Soviet Union itself. Correction: The satellite states broke away in 1989, whereas the Soviet Union itself did not officially dissolve until December 1991.
- Error: Claiming the Malta Summit caused the fall of the Berlin Wall. Correction: The Berlin Wall fell weeks before the Malta Summit; the summit acknowledged the changing reality rather than causing the wall's collapse.
- Error: Assuming the US militarily defeated the USSR in proxy wars like Angola and Ethiopia. Correction: The conflicts ended primarily because the USSR could no longer afford to fund its allies, leading to mutual superpower disengagement.
- Error: Confusing Gorbachev's resignation with the fall of the Berlin Wall. Correction: The Berlin Wall fell in November 1989, whereas Gorbachev resigned over two years later in December 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union.