2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – Towards a new Consensus, 1987–1997 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History
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2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – Towards a new Consensus, 1987–1997 (A-level only) explained
The fall of Thatcher in 1990 left a complex legacy, elevating John Major as leader to unite a fractured Conservative Party.
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Major’s premiership faced severe economic developments, notably 'Black Wednesday' in 1992, when Britain crashed out of the Exchange Rate Mechanism, destroying the party's reputation for economic competence. Major's political policies, like the Citizen's Charter, were overshadowed by relentless political sleaze, scandals, and vicious satire. Despite this, Major made vital progress in his approach to Northern Ireland, initiating the peace process with the 1993 Downing Street Declaration. However, deep Conservative divisions over Europe, worsened by the Maastricht Treaty, fatally undermined his authority.
Realignment of the Labour Party under Kinnock, Smith and Blair; reasons for Labour victory in 1997
The realignment of the Labour Party transformed it from an unelectable socialist faction into the centrist 'New Labour' election machine. Neil Kinnock initiated this by expelling the far-left Militant Tendency and abandoning unilateral nuclear disarmament. John Smith further democratised the party by introducing 'One Member, One Vote' (OMOV) for parliamentary selections, reducing trade union block-vote power. Tony Blair completed the ideological shift by abolishing Clause IV, formally ending Labour's commitment to mass nationalisation. This realignment, combined with severe Conservative weaknesses—including 'sleaze' scandals, deep divisions over Europe, and the economic humiliation of Black Wednesday—secured Labour's landslide 1997 victory, aided by strategic media endorsements like The Sun.
Social issues: the extent of 'social liberalism'; anti-establishment culture; the position of women and race-relations
Between 1987 and 1997, Britain experienced complex social shifts. The extent of 'social liberalism' was contested; while Section 28 (1988) restricted gay rights, public attitudes gradually became more tolerant, culminating in the lowering of the homosexual age of consent in 1994. An anti-establishment culture flourished through the illegal rave scene, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 protests, and the rise of Britpop. The position of women advanced with increased workforce participation and the emergence of 'Girl Power', though the 'glass ceiling' and unequal pay persisted. Race relations faced severe scrutiny following the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993, which exposed institutional racism within the police, even as multiculturalism became more visible in mainstream British culture.
Foreign affairs: relations with Europe, including the impact of the Single European Act and Maastricht Treaty; interventions in the Balkans; contribution and attitude to the end of the Cold War
British foreign policy from 1987 to 1997 was defined by European integration and the Soviet bloc's collapse. Thatcher supported the 1986 Single European Act to create a single market but fiercely opposed further political union. Conversely, Major signed the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, securing opt-outs but deeply dividing the Conservative Party. Concurrently, Britain navigated the end of the Cold War; Thatcher acted as a crucial diplomatic bridge between Reagan and Gorbachev, fostering dialogue while maintaining a firm anti-communist stance. Following the Soviet collapse, Major’s government faced new challenges, notably the complex British and UN interventions in the Balkans during Yugoslavia's violent breakup, which exposed the limitations of European peacekeeping without robust US support.
Your focus
- Explain the immediate causes and long-term legacy of Margaret Thatcher's resignation.
- Analyse the political consequences of 'Black Wednesday' and ongoing scandals on John Major's government.
- Evaluate Major's successes and failures, comparing his Northern Ireland approach with his handling of Conservative divisions over Europe.
Show all 12 objectives
- Trace the chronological steps taken by Kinnock, Smith, and Blair to reform the Labour Party.
- Analyse the significance of abolishing Clause IV in changing Labour's ideological stance.
- Evaluate the relative importance of Labour's realignment versus Conservative failures in determining the 1997 election result.
- Assess the extent to which British society became more socially liberal between 1987 and 1997.
- Identify key examples of anti-establishment culture and explain their origins.
- Evaluate the progress made in the position of women and the state of race relations during this decade.
- Explain the differing attitudes of Thatcher and Major towards European integration and the resulting treaties.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of British diplomatic and military interventions in the Balkans during the 1990s.
- Analyse the extent of Margaret Thatcher's influence on the diplomatic processes that ended the Cold War.
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – Towards a new Consensus, 1987–1997 (A-level only) exam tips
Marking Points
- Analyse the factors leading to the fall of Thatcher, including the Poll Tax, European divisions, and her leadership style, alongside her enduring legacy.
- Evaluate John Major's effectiveness as leader in managing a divided cabinet and securing the surprise 1992 general election victory.
- Assess the economic and political impact of 'Black Wednesday' (1992) on the Conservative Party's reputation for economic management.
- Examine how political sleaze, financial scandals, and media satire eroded public trust in Major's government.
- Evaluate Major's political policies and his crucial approach to Northern Ireland, particularly the significance of the Downing Street Declaration.
- Explain how Conservative divisions over the Maastricht Treaty and European integration weakened Major's government.
- Assess Kinnock's role in making the party electable by tackling the hard left (Militant) and modernising communications.
- Evaluate Smith's crucial structural reform of OMOV, which weakened union dominance over party policy.
- Analyse Blair's symbolic and ideological rebranding, particularly the 1995 revision of Clause IV, to appeal to Middle England.
- Weigh the impact of Conservative failures (Black Wednesday, sleaze, European divisions) against Labour's modernisation in explaining the 1997 landslide.
- Evaluate the limits of social liberalism by contrasting progressive public attitudes with conservative legislation like Section 28.
- Analyse the manifestations of anti-establishment culture, including environmental protests (e.g., Swampy), rave culture, and the backlash against the Criminal Justice Act 1994.
- Assess changes in the position of women, noting the contrast between cultural empowerment ('Girl Power') and ongoing economic disparities like the gender pay gap.
- Examine the state of race relations by discussing the impact of the Stephen Lawrence murder and the subsequent campaign for justice on public awareness of institutional racism.
- Assess the impact of the Single European Act (1986) in advancing economic integration while triggering Thatcher's Bruges Speech (1988) against a European superstate.
- Evaluate John Major's negotiation of the Maastricht Treaty (1992), specifically securing opt-outs from the Social Chapter and the single currency, and its role in fracturing the Conservative Party.
- Analyse Thatcher's diplomatic role in the late Cold War, particularly her early recognition of Mikhail Gorbachev as a leader the West could 'do business with'.
- Examine the British military and diplomatic response to the Bosnian War (1992-1995), including the deployment of troops to UNPROFOR and the perceived failures of Western intervention prior to the Dayton Agreement.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Contrast the economic reality of the mid-1990s recovery with the lingering political damage caused by 'Black Wednesday'.
- 💡Use specific examples of 'sleaze' (e.g., the 'Cash for Questions' scandal) to illustrate the decline in Conservative moral authority.
- 💡When discussing Conservative divisions, explicitly link the Eurosceptic rebellions over the Maastricht Treaty to Major's loss of parliamentary control.
- 💡When evaluating the 1997 election, always balance Labour's internal reforms against the Conservatives' self-destruction.
- 💡Use specific examples of 'sleaze' (e.g., the Cash for Questions scandal) to illustrate the decline of Conservative authority.
- 💡Trace the continuity of modernisation from Kinnock to Blair to show that 'New Labour' was a long-term process, not an overnight change.
- 💡Use the Stephen Lawrence case as a primary example when discussing the complexities and failures of race relations during this period.
- 💡Contrast John Major's 'Back to Basics' campaign with the reality of 1990s social liberalism to demonstrate the disconnect between government and society.
- 💡Link the rise of anti-establishment culture to youth disillusionment with long-term Conservative rule and economic recessions.
- 💡Link foreign policy directly to domestic politics, particularly how the Maastricht Treaty rebellions undermined John Major's parliamentary authority.
- 💡Contrast Thatcher's ideological approach to the Cold War with Major's pragmatic, crisis-management approach to the Balkans.
- 💡Use specific examples of Thatcher's diplomacy, such as her 1984 meeting with Gorbachev, to evaluate Britain's influence on superpower relations.
Common Mistakes
- Attributing the 1997 Conservative defeat solely to Tony Blair's appeal; the groundwork was laid by 'Black Wednesday', sleaze, and deep Conservative divisions.
- Claiming Major achieved nothing in Northern Ireland; he was instrumental in the 1993 Downing Street Declaration which paved the way for the Good Friday Agreement.
- Confusing the causes of Thatcher's fall; while the Poll Tax was the public catalyst, her cabinet's loss of confidence over her European stance was the immediate trigger.
- Attributing the abolition of Clause IV to Kinnock or Smith; correction: Tony Blair achieved the revision of Clause IV in 1995.
- Assuming Labour's 1997 victory was solely due to Blair's appeal; correction: acknowledge the critical role of Conservative economic failures, particularly Black Wednesday in 1992, which destroyed their reputation for economic competence.
- Overlooking John Smith's contribution; correction: explicitly mention Smith's introduction of OMOV, which was vital for reducing trade union influence before Blair took over.
- Claiming that the 1990s were a period of unchallenged social liberalism; correction: highlight conservative pushbacks such as Section 28 and the 'Back to Basics' campaign.
- Treating anti-establishment culture as purely political; correction: include cultural movements like rave culture, Britpop, and environmental activism as key expressions of anti-establishment sentiment.
- Assuming race relations were entirely harmonious by the 1990s; correction: use the Stephen Lawrence case to demonstrate ongoing systemic issues and racial tensions.
- Error: Claiming Thatcher opposed the Single European Act. Correction: Thatcher strongly supported the Single European Act for its free-market benefits, only later opposing the political integration it facilitated.
- Error: Confusing the terms of the Maastricht Treaty with the Treaty of Rome. Correction: Ensure you specify that Maastricht established the European Union and the framework for the Euro, from which Major secured a British opt-out.
- Error: Stating Britain acted alone in the Balkans. Correction: Emphasise that British interventions in the Balkans were conducted as part of multilateral UN and NATO operations, such as UNPROFOR.