History GCSE

History GCSE glossary

1642 key terms for History GCSE, A to Z, each linked to the topic pages that use it.

Find a term in History GCSE

1642 terms found. Open a term to try a short memory check.

A

Abdication: Forced by his generals and Duma members who saw no other way to restore order, the Tsar gave up the throne on 2 March, ending the Romanov dynasty.Pearson Edexcel
Able-bodied unemployed: A third category that emerged alongside the deserving and undeserving poor: people who wanted to work.Pearson Edexcel
Abolition of private farming: The ending of private farming entirely, as peasants surrendered their private plots, livestock and tools to collective ownership.Pearson Edexcel
Abolition of the monarchy: The ending of the monarchy by Parliament after the execution of Charles I in 1649.OCR
Abolitionism: The movement to end slavery.OCR
Act of Succession: Declared Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon invalid, making Mary illegitimate and securing the succession for Anne Boleyn's children.Pearson Edexcel
Act of Supremacy: Established Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, legally severing papal authority.Pearson Edexcel
Act of Uniformity: Dictated the appearance of churches and the form of services, including the use of the Book of Common Prayer.Pearson Edexcel
Adaptation of feudal service: Feudal obligation was adapted rather than simply abolished, as armies relied less on the old feudal levy of knights serving for a set number of days and more…OCR
Adaptation to new threats: The army's response to new technological threats, shown by specialised bomb disposal units and a shift to advanced technical and logistical expertise.Pearson Edexcel
Adaptation to the environment: Indigenous peoples of the Plains developed highly adapted ways of life centred around their environment.Pearson Edexcel
Adaptation to warfare: The underground hospital at Arras provided a safe, fully equipped medical environment hidden within chalk caves, protecting patients and staff from artillery…Pearson Edexcel
Administrative and economic control of the surrounding area: Kenilworth's location allowed control of the surrounding area and approach routes, giving an administrative or economic advantage.OCR
Agent Orange: A toxic defoliant used to strip the jungle canopy.Pearson Edexcel
Agrarian Reform Law: The 1950 law that was the primary mechanism for attacking landlordism and aiming to destroy the traditional rural power structure.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural challenges: Output grew too slowly to feed the expanding urban workforce, leading to food shortages, and reliance on Soviet loans forced the export of desperately needed…Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural cooperation: Gradual moves towards collective farming intended to increase efficiency and prevent the re-emergence of a wealthy peasant class.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural Development: Changes in farming brought about by innovative technology and methods, including barbed wire, the sulky plough, windmills, dry farming and Russian winter wheat.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural expansion: The constant territorial expansion necessitated by tobacco cultivation, a labour-intensive cash crop that quickly exhausted soil.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural mismanagement: Absurd agricultural policies like Lysenkoism and the diversion of peasant labour to produce useless 'backyard iron'.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives (APCs): Lower-level cooperatives of 30 to 50 households in which land was pooled and farmed collectively.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural reform: The restoration of private farming, allowing peasants to reclaim small private plots and sell surplus produce at free markets.Pearson Edexcel
Agricultural transformation: Changes such as the enclosure of land and the shift from arable to sheep farming, which required fewer labourers and led to rural unemployment.Pearson Edexcel
Air-raid precautions: Measures taken to protect Londoners during the Blitz, including the use of underground stations and community-organised spaces such as 'Mickey's shelter' in…Pearson Edexcel
Alien subsidies: Restrictions imposed by the state on migrants, alongside monitoring.Pearson Edexcel
Aliens Act (1905): Followed pressure over pauper immigration and antisemitic agitation, and gave officials power to exclude some arrivals.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
All Saints Road: A street that developed into a central hub for Caribbean businesses and social life.Pearson Edexcel
Alternatives to incarceration: The system developed non-custodial alternatives to prison, such as probation and community service orders, aiming to reduce overcrowding and integrate…Pearson Edexcel
Ambition and conquest: The claimants' motives, contrasting William's desire for expansion with Hardrada's ambition to rebuild a Viking empire.Pearson Edexcel
American containment through the Truman Doctrine: The USA and its allies responded with containment, and the Truman Doctrine of 1947 offered support to states resisting communism.OCR
Analytical questioning: Formulating questions that move beyond simple factual recall, prompting deeper investigation into causes, consequences, or hidden perspectives.Pearson Edexcel
Anarchy and disorder: The growth of anarchy followed the escalating use of terror, with schools and factories closing and local governments collapsing.Pearson Edexcel
Anatomy and dissection: Human dissection became legal and more common, allowing students to observe anatomy directly rather than relying solely on ancient texts.Pearson Edexcel
Anderson shelters: Provided for domestic protection, designed to protect against blast damage and shrapnel from near misses rather than direct bomb strikes.Pearson Edexcel
Angevin Empire: The empire that Philip II aimed to dismantle and whose power in France he sought to destroy.Pearson Edexcel
Anglo-Spanish relations: The hostility between England and Spain that the Cadiz raid escalated, as Drake's pre-emptive strike disrupted Philip II's invasion plans.Pearson Edexcel
Anglo-Spanish rivalry: The deterioration of relations between England and Spain, which Drake's knighthood by Elizabeth angered King Philip II and accelerated.Pearson Edexcel
Annuities: Payments given in exchange for allowing safe passage for migrants and building forts, as set out in the first Fort Laramie Treaty (1851).Pearson Edexcel
Annulment: The ending of Henry's marriage to Catherine that Henry sought, primarily to secure a male heir, for religious conscience under Leviticus, and through desire…Pearson Edexcel
Anti-alien sentiment: Hostility among the existing population, who blamed Jewish migrants for driving up rents and undercutting wages, was exacerbated by hostile media portrayals…Pearson Edexcel
Anti-Bolshevik White armies: Forces opposed to the Bolsheviks for whom the deposed royal family could become a rallying point, leading to the execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family.Pearson Edexcel
Anti-clericalism: Public criticism of the Church in England that provided a convenient justification for Henry to challenge the Church's power and establish royal supremacy.Pearson Edexcel
Anti-Rightist purge: A brutal crackdown launched in 1957 that targeted intellectuals, students, and party members who had spoken out, labelling them 'rightists' or…Pearson Edexcel
Anti-Semitism: Hostility towards Jewish people, which the Nuremberg Laws institutionalised in 1935.Pearson Edexcel
Anti-Semitism in practice: The 1933 Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service purged Jewish and politically unreliable educators, and History blamed Jews for the 1918…Pearson Edexcel
Anti-war movement: The campaign against the war that the exposure of the massacre accelerated by shattering the moral justification for US involvement.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Antibiotics: Produced by microorganisms, such as penicillin, they were mass produced and conquered many bacterial infections.Pearson Edexcel
April Theses: Lenin's demands for an end to the war, the transfer of power to the Soviets, and land redistribution, encapsulated in the slogans 'Peace, Bread, Land' and…Pearson Edexcel
Arab demands: These were an independent Arab state, an end to Jewish immigration, and the cessation of land sales to Jewish settlers, fearing demographic marginalisation.Pearson Edexcel
Arab nationalism: A force Nasser promoted, alongside anti-imperialism, to position Egypt as the leader of the Arab world.Pearson Edexcel
Arbitrary power: John's use of power by seizing lands, demanding hostages, and denying barons fair trials, which created intense fear and resentment.Pearson Edexcel
Armed conflict: The Civil War of 1918–21, which erupted due to widespread opposition to Bolshevik rule and involved the White armies, foreign intervention and Trotsky's Red…Pearson Edexcel
Armistice: An agreement signed in 1949, although a formal peace treaty was never established between Israel and Egypt.Pearson Edexcel
Arms control: Attempts to limit weapons, seen in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Outer Space Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.Pearson Edexcel
Arms control and limitation: SALT 1 was the first major agreement to limit nuclear weapons, restricting Anti-Ballistic Missile systems and freezing the number of strategic ballistic…Pearson Edexcel
Arms race: A defining feature of the Cold War, driven by the desire for military superiority and deterrence, which escalated from atomic bombs to hydrogen bombs and ICBMs.Pearson Edexcel
Army composition: The make-up of the forces, with the English relying on the inexperienced fyrd alongside elite housecarls and fighting exclusively as infantry, while the…Pearson Edexcel
Army mutiny: Soldiers of the Petrograd garrison refused to fire on civilians and joined the protesters, depriving the regime of its authority.Pearson Edexcel
Army oath of allegiance: Sworn on the same day, a personal oath of allegiance directly to Hitler rather than to the German state, cementing his control over the armed forces.Pearson Edexcel
Arrival and settlement: The first arrival of Jews in England in 1066, linked to the Norman Conquest and William I's invitation of settlers.OCR
Arrival and settlement events: Events of key significance in the immigration history of the area, such as a wave of arrival after a particular crisis or law.OCR
ARVN: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam, which was to take over combat responsibilities, received modern American weapons and extensive training, but suffered…Pearson Edexcel
Aseptic surgery: A move in which operating theatres and instruments were sterilised to prevent bacteria entering wounds.Pearson Edexcel
Asiento system: A system through which Spain regulated the trade of enslaved Africans to supply labour to the Americas.Pearson Edexcel
Assimilation: The US government's overarching goal for reservation life, intending to force Plains Indians into white American society by making them farmers.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Assize of Arms: A requirement that freemen bear arms appropriate to their wealth.Pearson Edexcel
Astrology in medicine: The belief that the alignment of planets and stars influenced health, so physicians consulted star charts to diagnose patients.Pearson Edexcel
Attempts at disarmament: Included the Washington Naval Conference 1921–1922 and the failure of the World Disarmament Conference in the early 1930s.OCR
Attitudes to refugees and asylum seekers: Views on political refugees and asylum seekers that ranged from humanitarian concern to suspicion.OCR
Autarky: The concept of economic self-sufficiency, where a country aims to produce everything it needs without relying on international trade.OCR
Authoritarian control: Mao's absolute dictatorial control, reinforced by his reaction, which effectively silenced intellectual dissent in China for decades.Pearson Edexcel
Authoritarianism: Centralised control without genuine democratic input, ensured by democratic centralism, under which lower levels had to strictly obey decisions made by the…Pearson Edexcel
Auxiliary roles: Support roles in which women served, such as the WAAC in WWI, before full integration into combat roles in the modern professional army.Pearson Edexcel

B

Bailey: An enclosed courtyard within a castle, used for soldiers and horses.Pearson Edexcel
Bank of England: Founded in 1694, it helped fund government debt and stabilised public finance as war increased state borrowing.OCR
Baronial and other rebellions: Events in which castles became centres of opposition and targets for royal forces, so control of a stronghold mattered politically.OCR
Baronial discontent: Losing Normandy caused a major financial and political crisis, angering English barons who lost their Norman estates.Pearson Edexcel
Baronial opposition and Magna Carta under John: Military failure in France and heavy financial demands provoked baronial opposition, producing Magna Carta in 1215 and open rebellion.OCR
Baronial power and rebellion: A great lord used a fortified household, a muster point for retainers and a visible claim to status, and the rebellion of Simon de Montfort shows a castle…OCR
Baronial rebellion: The major rebellion in 1088 led by Bishop Odo of Bayeux against William Rufus, aiming to unite the territories under Robert.Pearson Edexcel
Baronial relations: The relationship between the king and the barons, whose grievances defined John's reign and led to rebellion.Pearson Edexcel
Bartolomé de las Casas: A Dominican friar who became a prominent advocate for indigenous rights, exposing atrocities in his writings and influencing the Crown.Pearson Edexcel
Basis of kingship: A mixture of descent, election and Church blessing, so that a candidate needed royal blood, acceptance by the leading men and coronation.OCR
Battle of Lincoln: The 1217 battle in which Marshal led the royalist forces to a decisive victory against the rebels and the French.Pearson Edexcel
Bauhaus: A movement founded by Walter Gropius that rejected traditional ornamentation in favour of functional, modern designs using new materials like steel and glass.Pearson Edexcel
Bay of Pigs incident: The April 1961 invasion in which the CIA trained Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro, which failed disastrously and humiliated President Kennedy.Pearson Edexcel
Bay of Pigs invasion: A failed US-backed invasion of April 1961, after which US fears contributed to the crisis.OCR
Beat constable: An officer who patrolled set routes to maintain a visible presence and deter crime.Pearson Edexcel
Beauty of Labour (SdA): A campaign to improve workplace conditions, such as installing canteens, though workers often built these themselves during unpaid overtime.Pearson Edexcel
Benefit of Clergy: A legal loophole originating in medieval canon law that allowed literate defendants (originally clergy, later any literate person) to claim exemption from the…OCR
Berlin Airlift: The response by the USA and Britain of flying essential supplies like coal and food into West Berlin for nearly a year until Stalin lifted the blockade.Pearson Edexcel
Berlin Blockade and Airlift: Stalin cut land routes to West Berlin, and Western aircraft supplied the city until the blockade was lifted.OCR
Berlin Ultimatum: Issued by Khrushchev in November 1958, it demanded that Western powers withdraw troops from West Berlin within six months to create a demilitarised 'free city'.Pearson Edexcel
Bias and perspective: The personal bias or editorial bias of a source, which can itself be useful for understanding the author's perspective or motives.Pearson Edexcel
Bills and accounts: Records of payments that reveal purchases, wages and running costs at the castle.OCR
Black Consciousness and SASO: A movement led by Steve Biko that urged Black South Africans to reclaim psychological and political confidence, while SASO organised Black students on…OCR
Black Power: A movement that emerged from frustration with the slow pace of legislative change, persistent poverty in northern ghettos and anger over police brutality,…Pearson Edexcel
Black Pride: A focus of the Black Power movement, alongside economic self-sufficiency and political empowerment, rather than being solely about violence.Pearson Edexcel
Blackfriars court: The legatine court in London where attempts to secure the annulment culminated, and where Catherine defended herself and appealed directly to Rome.Pearson Edexcel
blacksmiths: Workers who maintained tools, weapons and ironwork so that the castle functioned.OCR
Blockade: Stalin's blocking of all land and water access to West Berlin in June 1948, which was lifted in May 1949.Pearson Edexcel
Blood groups: Karl Landsteiner's 1901 discovery, which made transfusions safer.Pearson Edexcel
Blood tests: These allow doctors to check for infections, genetic conditions and organ function without invasive surgery.Pearson Edexcel
Bloodletting: A treatment in which blood was removed to rebalance the Four Humours, also called phlebotomy.Pearson Edexcel
Bloody Code: A legal system begun in the late seventeenth century that drastically increased the number of crimes punishable by death, including minor property offences.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Boleyn faction: The group led by Anne and her father who convinced Henry that Wolsey was intentionally delaying the process.Pearson Edexcel
Bolshevik support: Support that grew significantly among workers and soldiers as Lenin's activities provided a radical alternative to the Provisional Government.Pearson Edexcel
Bomb disposal units: Specialised units created because of the increasing threat of unexploded ordnance and improvised explosive devices.Pearson Edexcel
Book burnings: Public destruction in 1933 of works by Jewish, communist or pacifist authors.Pearson Edexcel
Border warfare: Conflict that shaped which castles were fortified and how, because frontier regions needed defence against incursion.OCR
Boston Tea Party: A direct protest in 1773 against the Tea Act, in which members of the Sons of Liberty, disguised as Mohawk Indians, boarded British ships and destroyed 342…Pearson Edexcel
Bourgeois values: Values promoted by traditional Chinese culture, rooted in Confucianism, which threatened the communist revolution.Pearson Edexcel
Bow Street Runners: The first organised detective force, established by Henry Fielding in 1749.Pearson Edexcel
Brain drain: The loss of skilled workers from East Germany as part of the refugee problem, threatening its economy.Pearson Edexcel
Brezhnev Doctrine: Policy stating the Soviet Union had the right to intervene militarily in any Eastern Bloc country where communism was threatened.Pearson Edexcel
Brigantines: Purpose-built vessels deployed by Cortés on Lake Texcoco to control the waterways and prevent Aztec resupply.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Brinkmanship: Nasser's escalatory actions, including moving troops into Sinai, expelling UNEF and closing the Straits of Tiran, which pushed the crisis towards war.Pearson Edexcel
British imperial policy: The British Parliament introduced the Sugar Act to raise revenue from the American colonies to help pay off the debt incurred during the French and Indian War.Pearson Edexcel
British mistakes: Poor communication between generals Burgoyne and Howe before Saratoga severely undermined their campaigns.Pearson Edexcel
British Nationality Act 1948: Created citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies, shaping who could enter later.OCR
Broken Promises: The Dakota Sioux were denied promised government annuities, which, with starvation, caused Little Crow's War.Pearson Edexcel
Broken treaties: Agreements the US government did not strictly adhere to, as when the discovery of gold in the Black Hills led to the 1868 Treaty being broken.Pearson Edexcel
Brutality and scorched-earth tactics: William's brutal response involved the systematic destruction of the region, burning crops, slaughtering livestock and destroying villages across Yorkshire.Pearson Edexcel
Built environment: The English landscape transformed through Norman castles, cathedrals and new architectural styles.Pearson Edexcel
Bureaucracy vs revolution: Mao's fear that the Chinese Communist Party was becoming bureaucratic and corrupt, which drove his drive for purification.Pearson Edexcel
Bureaucratic government: A system of departmental administration that was more efficient and less reliant on the monarch's personal household.Pearson Edexcel

C

Cacao and tobacco: Early imports from the Americas introduced as highly prized luxury commodities for the elite.Pearson Edexcel
Camp David Accords: Frameworks for peace agreed by Sadat and Begin at the presidential retreat in September 1978 after thirteen days of intense, isolated talks.Pearson Edexcel
Capital punishment: Execution, such as hanging, which continued as a primary method for dealing with offenders.Pearson Edexcel
Capitalism: A system that championed private enterprise and individual liberty, with free elections and private property.Pearson Edexcel
Capitalist roaders: Mao's label for Liu and Deng, reflecting his belief that their pragmatic approach was leading China down a capitalist road.Pearson Edexcel
Caracole: A cavalry tactic in which units rode towards the enemy, discharged their pistols, and wheeled away to reload, instead of charging with lances.Pearson Edexcel
Cardwell's army reforms: Reforms introduced to modernise the army following the failures of the Crimean War.Pearson Edexcel
Caribs: A group Columbus heard reports of, described as fierce and hostile, whose perceived aggression was used to justify violence and enslavement.Pearson Edexcel
Carter Doctrine: Announced in 1980, it committed the USA to using military force, if necessary, to protect its national interests and oil supplies in the Persian Gulf.Pearson Edexcel
Castle as display of status: Fortification and display signalled power to rivals, and remodelling displayed wealth and favour.OCR
Castle as palace and residence: The Lancasters and John of Gaunt remodelled the castle as a palace, while later owners sought comfort, display and hospitality rather than only defence.OCR
Castles as military bases: A castle such as Kenilworth housed a garrison and acted as a base for further military action.OCR
Castles as political and military strongholds: Strongholds whose control mattered politically and whose defences were tested by sieges, causing damage.OCR
Casus belli: An act Israel considered justification for war, namely the closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping on 22 May.Pearson Edexcel
Causes of conflict: The immediate cause was the defeat of the Christian army at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, which led to the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.Pearson Edexcel
Causes of the building of the Berlin Wall: A major cause was the large-scale emigration of East Germans to the West through Berlin, which weakened the East German state.OCR
Causes of the Cultural Revolution: Mao's wish to reassert his authority after the failures of the Great Leap Forward and to attack 'capitalist roaders' and 'bourgeois' thinking in the Party and…OCR
Causes of war: Direct military intervention and political overreach in the Netherlands, which convinced Philip II that an invasion of England was necessary.Pearson Edexcel
Censorship: The suppression of unapproved information, ensuring that all media, literature and art conformed to Party ideology and dissenting voices were suppressed.Pearson Edexcel
Centralisation of power: The centralising of Church control under Canterbury, which ensured the Church supported William's regime and strengthened his grip on England.Pearson Edexcel
Centralised bureaucratic government: The highly centralised system Spain established to maintain control over its vast overseas territories.Pearson Edexcel
Chain of evacuation: The highly organised progression through distinct stages by which the wounded were moved and treated, managed by the RAMC and nurses.Pearson Edexcel
Challenge to authority: Encouraging individuals to question traditional authority, including the established, formal church hierarchies.Pearson Edexcel
Challenging authority: Vesalius proved that Galen had made over 300 errors, encouraging physicians to challenge classical authorities.Pearson Edexcel
Change and continuity: The idea that between 1700 and 1900 Britain saw both shifts and things that stayed the same in the reasons for migration and patterns of settlement.Pearson Edexcel
Change in employment over time: Available work shifted as industries expanded or declined, so employment patterns changed over time.OCR
Change in function over time: Over time the same site took on other day-to-day functions, such as administration, residence and later display, but conquest was central in the Norman period.OCR
Changes to worship, prayer books and the English Bible: Services moved towards English, prayer books such as the 1549 Book of Common Prayer were issued, and the Bible in English was made available.OCR
Changing definitions of crime: During the 20th and 21st centuries, definitions of crime evolved to reflect changing social attitudes and technology.Pearson Edexcel
Changing fortunes of war: Germany's position moved from early gains and colonisation in the East to retreat and defeat.OCR
Changing international relations: The removal of the military threat to NATO, the dismantling of the Iron Curtain and the pursuit of independent foreign policies by former Soviet satellite…Pearson Edexcel
Changing nature of medieval warfare: Warfare in Britain changed in scale and method between c.1290 and c.1450, with armies relying less on the old feudal levy and more on paid service, contracts…OCR
Changing owners of Kenilworth Castle: The named families mark different phases across its history, from about 1000 to 1750, and each owner should be placed in their own century.OCR
Changing relationship between state and people: The state directed labour, taxed and rationed, but also promised welfare and reconstruction, which helps explain post-war reform.OCR
Charters: Documents many towns purchased from the king, granting them independence to hold markets, collect their own taxes, and govern themselves through a mayor and…Pearson Edexcel
Chateau Gaillard: A formidable fortress built by Richard I between 1196 and 1198 on the River Seine to defend Normandy from the French King, Philip II.Pearson Edexcel
Château Gaillard: A fortification in which Richard I heavily invested as part of his aim to defend Normandy.Pearson Edexcel
Chattel: The legal status of enslaved people as property, with no rights under colonial law.Pearson Edexcel
Cheka: The secret police led by Felix Dzerzhinsky, which played the central role in executing the Terror.Pearson Edexcel
Chemical warfare: The deployment of chemical weapons, including chlorine, phosgene and mustard gas, causing effects ranging from asphyxiation to severe blistering.Pearson Edexcel
Chevauchée: A practice of plunder and pillage in which armies deliberately destroyed enemy territory to undermine morale and economic stability.Pearson Edexcel
Chinampas: Artificial islands constructed in the shallow waters of Lake Texcoco, used for intensive agriculture.OCR
Chivalrous: A description of Richard's character as a celebrated warrior, deeply chivalrous and fiercely determined to lead the Third Crusade.Pearson Edexcel
Chivalry: A quality for which Marshal had an immense personal reputation, helping to stabilise the government during Henry's minority.Pearson Edexcel
Chivalry and warfare: Richard sought the fulfilment of his role as a chivalric king, alongside military glory and prestige.Pearson Edexcel
Chronology: The sequence of events within the 1189–1216 timeframe, which students must contextualise accurately.Pearson Edexcel
Chronology of change at Kenilworth: Dating each major change to Kenilworth's appearance and layout and placing each feature in its period.OCR
Church vs State: Clerics owed allegiance to both the Pope in Rome and the English King, complicating royal authority and feudal obligations.Pearson Edexcel
CID: The Criminal Investigation Department was developed in 1878 to improve investigative capabilities.Pearson Edexcel
Civil rights and activism: Equal rights movements emerged, with activists organising protests to demand fair treatment for migrant communities.Pearson Edexcel
Civil war and instability: The succession occurred in the middle of the First Barons' War, making it highly contested and dangerous.Pearson Edexcel
Civil war sieges: Seventeenth-century events that turned castles into contested garrisons, with bombardment and surrender affecting their fabric.OCR
Civilian alienation: 'Search and Destroy' missions often resulted in civilian casualties, alienating the South Vietnamese population and pushing the local population towards…Pearson Edexcel
Civilian experience: Warfare increasingly impacted civilians through intense recruitment drives and the requisitioning of supplies and transport.Pearson Edexcel
Civilian morale: The public spirits that the government worried about collapsing during the devastation, and which leisure activities such as dancehalls and theatre helped to…Pearson Edexcel
Civilian participation: The 'Dig for Victory' campaign fostered a resilient, unified response to wartime shortages among Londoners.Pearson Edexcel
Claims to the throne in 1066: Several claimants competed for the English throne, including Harold Godwinson, Harald Hardrada of Norway and William, Duke of Normandy.OCR
Class divisions: Deep class and cultural divides existed in America, shown by working-class 'hard hats' resenting privileged college students protesting the war.Pearson Edexcel
closure of the 'Indian Frontier': The opening up of the last remaining Indian Territory to white settlers, effectively ending the concept of a separate, protected Indian frontier.Pearson Edexcel
Coexistence and tension: Recognising that coexistence and friction can both exist, rather than equating a multicultural population with the absence of tension.OCR
Cold War: The context in which appearing weak against Soviet and Chinese influence was considered dangerous.Pearson Edexcel
Cold War geopolitics: The Sino-Soviet split allowed Nixon to use diplomacy to pressure North Vietnam into negotiations.Pearson Edexcel
Cold War threat and nuclear deterrence: A period in the 1950s and 1960s of nuclear threat and deterrence affecting Britain, not a direct shooting war in Britain.OCR
Collapse of authority: A reason for Bolshevik success was the Provisional Government's lack of military support and lack of defensive forces, contrasting with Bolshevik organisation.Pearson Edexcel
Collapse of communism: The ousting of communist regimes by satellite states in 1989, which meant the Warsaw Pact no longer had a shared ideological foundation.Pearson Edexcel
Collective defence as an alliance principle: An attack on one member would be treated as an attack on all.OCR
Collective responsibility: The idea that groups such as tithings and the whole village shared responsibility for behaviour and for catching criminals.Pearson Edexcel
Collectives: Farms formed by merging individual farms into state-controlled units.Pearson Edexcel
Collectivisation: A policy introduced to address the limitations of the NEP and fund rapid industrialisation through mechanisation and economies of scale on collective farms.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Collectivism: The political belief that the state has a responsibility to protect citizens from poverty and hardship caused by circumstances beyond their individual control.OCR
Colonial expansion: Cortés sponsored expeditions to Honduras to expand the territory of New Spain.Pearson Edexcel
Colonial identity: A distinct American identity fostered among colonists, partly through fighting alongside one another and through feeling disrespected by arrogant British…Pearson Edexcel
Colonial infrastructure: An overland route across the isthmus connected the Pacific and Caribbean coasts, carrying South American silver and gold towards Spain.Pearson Edexcel
Colonial resentment: British colonists were angered when the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returned Louisbourg to France, feeling their sacrifices were ignored.Pearson Edexcel
Colonial rights and representation: Colonists argued the Act violated their rights as Englishmen, sparking early debates over 'no taxation without representation'.Pearson Edexcel
Colonial unity: The First Continental Congress united 12 of the 13 colonies in coordinated opposition to the Coercive Acts, marking a shift from isolated protests to unified…Pearson Edexcel
Colonial wealth: The immense wealth of the colonies, transformed into agricultural powerhouses by the exploitation of enslaved people.Pearson Edexcel
Colonisation and settlement: Columbus's later voyages shifted from exploration to colonisation, and the establishment of Santo Domingo in 1496 became the first permanent European…Pearson Edexcel
Colonisation challenges: The first English settlement in Virginia failed due to poor planning, lack of resources and deteriorating relations with the indigenous Algonquian population.Pearson Edexcel
Comecon: An economic alternative to the Marshall Plan, formed in 1949 to integrate satellite economies with the Soviet Union.Pearson Edexcel
Cominform: A political organisation established by Stalin in 1947 to coordinate European communist parties and ensure ideological obedience to Moscow.Pearson Edexcel
Command economy: A socialist system that the first Five-Year Plan sought to build in China.Pearson Edexcel
Commander-in-chief: The role Tsar Nicholas II took in 1915, meaning he was held personally responsible for all military failures.Pearson Edexcel
Commercial rivalry: English merchants sought access to the lucrative New World markets, leading to illegal trading and privateering attacks on Spanish treasure fleets, which…Pearson Edexcel
Common Sense: A pamphlet by Thomas Paine that translated complex political arguments for independence into clear, accessible language, shifting public opinion towards a…Pearson Edexcel
Commonwealth: Developed following the end of the British Empire and decolonisation, it encouraged migration.Pearson Edexcel
Commonwealth citizenship and right to settle: Commonwealth citizens held British subject status with a right to settle before controls tightened.OCR
Communal living: A system strictly enforced to maximise labour efficiency, in which families ate in massive mess halls and children were placed in communal crèches.Pearson Edexcel
Communism: A system that prioritised state ownership and collective equality, with a one-party state and state-owned economy.Pearson Edexcel
Community action and charity: Bruce Kenrick founded the Notting Hill Housing Trust in 1963 to buy properties and provide affordable, decent homes.Pearson Edexcel
Community and welfare: The Church's provision of essential social welfare, distributing alms to the poor and offering guidance during times of hardship.Pearson Edexcel
Community building: Despite hardships, Jewish migrants built a vibrant cultural and religious community, establishing synagogues, kosher shops and Jewish trade unions.Pearson Edexcel
Community care: The vast majority of care took place at home, where women used herbal remedies and traditional knowledge to treat their families.Pearson Edexcel
Community experience: The lived experiences of a community, understood through local sources such as personal accounts, photographs and local newspapers.Pearson Edexcel
Community institutions: Shops, places of worship, community organisations and schools that sustain multicultural community life.OCR
Community institutions and their founding: The opening of a place of worship, which is one of the significant events in the migration history of the area.OCR
Community involvement: A collaborative effort with local communities, exemplified by Neighbourhood Watch, which encourages citizens to actively prevent crime and report suspicious…Pearson Edexcel
Community organisations and cultural venues: Physical evidence such as community centres and cultural venues that migration has left in the built and lived environment of an urban area.OCR
Community organisations and integration: Helped newcomers find work and housing and gave them a voice in the wider city.OCR
Community resilience: The remarkable strength shown by the Asian community in Leicester in establishing thriving businesses and places of worship despite hostility.Pearson Edexcel
Community settlement patterns: They settled primarily in London, notably Spitalfields, as well as Canterbury and Norwich, where they established thriving communities.Pearson Edexcel
Community support networks: Mutual self-help organisations, such as 'pardner' schemes, were informal savings clubs that allowed members to pool their money to secure loans for housing…Pearson Edexcel
Concentration camps: Brutal prisons such as Dachau, which initially incarcerated political prisoners like communists and subjected inmates to forced labour and ideological…Pearson Edexcel
Concordat: A 1933 agreement between Hitler and the Pope to not interfere in each other's affairs, which Hitler quickly broke.Pearson Edexcel
Conestoga Indians: Peaceful, Christianised Indigenous people who were massacred by the Paxton Boys in 1763.Pearson Edexcel
Confessing Church: Protestant Church established in 1934 which rejected the Nazi-aligned Reich Church and the dismissal of Jewish converts.Pearson Edexcel
Conflict: Escalated on the Plains as white settlement encroached on Indigenous lands, with Little Crow's War, the Sand Creek Massacre and Red Cloud's War as examples.Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and conquest: Key events of the Spanish conquest of Peru, starting with the Battle of Cajamarca and the capture of Atahuallpa, followed by the revolt of the Incas and the…Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and consequence: The outcome of the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War, in which no independent Palestinian state was established and the refugee crisis became a central, unresolved…Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and intervention: US involvement in the Gulf War of 1991, when the US led a broad coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait.Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and rebellion: The baronial rebellion of 1215 escalated rapidly as negotiations with King John broke down, with the rebels renouncing their fealty and mustering their forces.Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and tension: War was fought for prestige, revenge, or resources rather than territorial conquest, and counting coup was the highest honour.Pearson Edexcel
Conflict and warfare: At the Battle of Arsuf, Richard maintained a tight defensive formation against Saladin's attacks, and the victory opened the route to Jaffa.Pearson Edexcel
Confucianism: The root of traditional Chinese culture which Mao believed promoted hierarchy and obedience to the past.Pearson Edexcel
conquest: The securing of Norman control over England, brought about by the collapse of the English army after King Harold's death.Pearson Edexcel
Conquistadors: Battle-hardened soldiers produced by the militant Catholic zeal of Spanish society, eager to spread Christianity and gain personal glory.Pearson Edexcel
Conscription: Compulsory military service introduced during wartime, such as by the Military Service Act 1916 to replace heavy losses.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Consequences for civilians and rural support: Heavy civilian casualties, loss of rural support, damage to land and jungle, and growing anti-war feeling.OCR
Consequences of conflict for international relations: Outcomes such as the US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973, and how a confrontation increased or eased Cold War tensions between the superpowers.OCR
Consequences of empire: The Inca Empire was destroyed, indigenous populations plummeted due to disease and forced labour, and Spain gained immense wealth, establishing a vast…Pearson Edexcel
Consequences of the crusade: The effects of Richard's actions during the crusade, including his quarrels with Philip II and Leopold of Austria, which made his return dangerous.Pearson Edexcel
Consolidation: The primary objective of Israel in the years immediately following the 1948–49 war, focused on national consolidation.Pearson Edexcel
Consolidation of Apartheid: Separate Development and the establishment of the Bantustans formed part of this process.OCR
Consolidation of Norman power: The northern Anglo-Saxon nobility was entirely replaced by loyal Norman lords, permanently securing the region.Pearson Edexcel
Consolidation of power: The rapid creation of the Nazi dictatorship in 1933 through the Reichstag Fire, the Enabling Act and the banning of other parties and trade unions.Pearson Edexcel
Constituent Assembly: An elected body whose November 1917 elections resulted in a majority for the Socialist Revolutionaries and which Lenin forcibly dissolved in January 1918…Pearson Edexcel
Constitutional change: Cromwell used Parliament to enact unprecedented religious and constitutional changes, increasing its power and importance.Pearson Edexcel
Consumerism and empire: Growth in buying imported goods such as sugar, tobacco, tea and calicoes tied ordinary families to colonial economies.OCR
Containment: The political principle established by the Truman Doctrine, committing the US to support free peoples resisting subjugation and directly targeting communist…Pearson Edexcel
Containment and the domino theory: US policy rested on containment of communism and the 'domino theory', which guided its involvement in Vietnam.OCR
Contested remembrance: Each form of commemoration selects and emphasises a particular version of events rather than being neutral, so remembering is not the same as recording.OCR
Contextual knowledge: Broader knowledge of the period and issue to which a framed question is linked.Pearson Edexcel
Continuity: The ongoing reliance on infantry regiments, which remained central even as modern warfare necessitated a shift towards specialised support roles.Pearson Edexcel
Continuity and change: Unlike his cautious and financially prudent father, the young Henry was viewed as a charismatic, athletic, and cultured 'Renaissance Prince', bringing…Pearson Edexcel
Continuity and change over time: Owners across different centuries had differing needs, so the castle changed to suit them, for example improved lodging or a new hall.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Continuity of government: The Cabinet War Rooms provided a secure, underground nerve centre for Churchill's government to direct the war effort.Pearson Edexcel
Continuity vs Change: The balance between approaches to prevention, treatment and care that stayed the same and those that were altered between 1500 and 1700.Pearson Edexcel
Control of routes, crossings and settlement: A castle needed control of routes such as roads, river crossings or a ford, and proximity to a settlement or manor it was meant to dominate.OCR
Control of the party apparatus: As General Secretary, Stalin packed party congresses with loyalists, using his position to secure majorities at Party Congresses.Pearson Edexcel
cooks: Kitchen staff who fed the household so that the castle functioned.OCR
Corporal punishment: A punishment that involves inflicting physical pain, such as the pillory or whipping, and continued as a primary method for dealing with offenders.Pearson Edexcel
Corruption and justice: Local justice was weak and corrupt cattle barons held influence, as shown when Billy the Kid became infamous during the Lincoln County War.Pearson Edexcel
Council of the Indies: The supreme administrative and judicial body for the empire, established in 1524, which advised the monarch and drafted colonial laws.Pearson Edexcel
Counter-revolutionaries: Those targeted by the Campaign to Suppress Counter-Revolutionaries, including former Guomindang officials, landlords and suspected dissidents.Pearson Edexcel
County and regional identity of the site: Fix the county first (Warwickshire), then the region (the West Midlands of England), then the nearest large settlements.OCR
Court factions and politics: Rival groups at court, such as the Boleyn faction versus Cromwell's supporters, clashed over foreign policy and monastic wealth.Pearson Edexcel
Court of Augmentations: A new specialised financial court created in 1536 to handle monastic lands and revenues from the Dissolution of the Monasteries.Pearson Edexcel
Court of First Fruits and Tenths: A new specialised financial court that collected taxes previously sent to Rome.Pearson Edexcel
Court politics: The earls resented losing influence to 'new men' like William Cecil, which was a political motive for the revolt.Pearson Edexcel
Court politics and influence: Jane's limited but notable influence included attempts to reconcile Henry with Mary and pleas for mercy during the Pilgrimage of Grace.Pearson Edexcel
Cow town: A safe transit point, such as Abilene, where cattle driven up from Texas could be loaded onto the railroad.Pearson Edexcel
Credibility gap: The gap created when media reports contradicted the government's optimistic reports, eroding public trust and galvanising the anti-war movement.Pearson Edexcel
Crime and policing: There were clear links between the environment and crime, as the labyrinthine dark alleys facilitated theft and prostitution, while desperate poverty drove…Pearson Edexcel
Crime prevention: A shift in policing strategy towards deterring offences before they occur, using community officers and educational programmes rather than merely reacting to…Pearson Edexcel
Crimean War: A war that exposed poor army organisation and medical care, prompting reporting by William Howard Russell and nursing reform associated with Florence…OCR
Crimes against authority: Offences such as heresy and treason that changed due to religious and political turmoil, in contrast with the continuity of ordinary offences.Pearson Edexcel
Crimes against property: A category of medieval crime including theft and arson.Pearson Edexcel
Crimes against the person: A category of medieval crime including murder and assault.Pearson Edexcel
Crisis and rising Nazi support 1929–1933: The political, social and economic crisis of 1929–1933 resulted in rising support for the Nazis.OCR
Crisis management: The construction of the Wall resolved the immediate refugee crisis for the Soviet Union and East Germany and ultimately stabilised the situation in Europe.Pearson Edexcel
Criticism of the Personal Rule: The Long Parliament attacked the Personal Rule of 1629–1640, criticising financial devices such as ship money and religious policies associated with Laud, and…OCR
Cross-checking evidence: A contract date, a plan and an aerial view together give a stronger picture of layout than any one alone.OCR
Cross-cultural communication: The acquisition of translators, particularly La Malinche, provided Cortés with essential intelligence and diplomatic leverage.Pearson Edexcel
Cross-referencing: Using different source types together to overcome individual weaknesses and ensure a balanced understanding of specific historical enquiries.Pearson Edexcel
Crown versus conquistador authority: Cortés's growing power alarmed the Spanish Crown, which sent officials to investigate and stripped him of his governorship in 1528.Pearson Edexcel
Crusade: A holy war sanctioned by the Pope to recover Christian territory, particularly Jerusalem, from Muslim control.Pearson Edexcel
Crusader States (Outremer): The four feudal states created by the Crusaders in the Levant: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Edessa, and the County of…OCR
Crusading spirit: A militant Catholic zeal fostered by the Reconquista, creating a society of battle-hardened soldiers eager to spread Christianity and gain personal glory.Pearson Edexcel
Cuauhtémoc: The new emperor under whom the defenders fought fiercely, captured while attempting to flee, leading to the formal Aztec surrender.Pearson Edexcel
Cuban Missile Crisis: A thirteen-day confrontation in October 1962 between the USA and the USSR over Soviet nuclear missiles sited on Cuba.OCR
Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro's 1959 overthrow of the US-backed dictator Batista, which severely damaged US-Cuban relations.Pearson Edexcel
Cult of Mao: A state-mandated, quasi-religious devotion that elevated Mao Zedong to a god-like status, with the Little Red Book as mandatory reading and Mao's image…Pearson Edexcel
Cult of personality: Mao cultivated a personality cult that portrayed him as an infallible, god-like figure, cementing his absolute hold on Chinese youth.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural and identity support: Helped immigrants preserve culture, language or identity.OCR
Cultural celebration and resistance: Organising the 1959 Caribbean Carnival in St Pancras Town Hall to uplift the community after the 1958 riots, laying the foundation for the later outdoor…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural Cold War: Cold War rivalry extended beyond politics and military into culture and sport, shown by the US-led boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics and the Soviet boycott…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural destruction: A wave of destruction in which temples, historical artefacts and literature were obliterated after Mao urged the Red Guards to destroy the 'four olds'.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural development and the Renaissance: The era witnessed the early development of the theatre, with purpose-built playhouses like The Theatre and The Rose attracting diverse audiences.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural diversity: The ethnic and cultural mix of an area, together with the languages spoken and everyday interactions between groups.OCR
Cultural erosion: A deliberate assault on Indigenous culture in which traditional practices like the Sun Dance were banned and children were sent to boarding schools to…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural impact: Changes such as Old Norse and Norman French vocabulary enriching the English language and influences on customs.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural imperialism and religious conversion: The Spanish actively sought to eradicate Aztec religion, destroying temples, smashing idols, and bringing in friars to forcefully convert survivors to…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural influence and identity: The influence of Caribbean cultures on the area through shops, markets, cafes, restaurants, shebeens, nightclubs and entertainment featuring Caribbean food…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural revolution: The regime attacked the Orthodox Church and promoted proletarian culture (Proletkult), using avant-garde art, cinema and propaganda to educate the masses and…Pearson Edexcel
Cultural Revolution Group: Jiang Qing was a key member of this group, through which she directed the Red Guards to purge party officials, artists and intellectuals.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural shifts: In leisure, the 'New Woman' emerged in cities like Berlin, characterised by short hair, makeup, and financial independence.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural suppression: A feature of persecution that included the suppression of local languages and cultures.Pearson Edexcel
Cultural transformation: The profound cultural impact of Asian migration, with the community establishing places of worship and transforming areas like the Golden Mile on Belgrave Road.Pearson Edexcel
Culture and beliefs: Plains Indians held that land and nature were sacred, created by the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka), and that the earth was their mother.Pearson Edexcel
Customs revenue: Money from duties that British mercantilist policies aimed to maximise, but which was often thwarted by corrupt officials and a lack of enforcement resources.Pearson Edexcel
Czech arms deal: The 1955 deal securing Soviet weapons, through which Nasser defied Western powers and boosted his popularity.Pearson Edexcel

D

Daemonologie: A publication by James VI of Scotland in 1597 that further fuelled fears of witchcraft and influenced later laws.Pearson Edexcel
Danelaw: An area of northern and eastern England where Viking settlers established distinct legal systems and administrative divisions.Pearson Edexcel
Darien Scheme and Act of Union 1707: The failure of the Darien Scheme is connected to the passing of the Act of Union in 1707.OCR
Day-to-day function of castles: A working centre of administration and law, not only a fortress, with routine activity continuing across different periods of its history.OCR
Dazhai Commune: A case study used to illustrate Mao's economic policies rather than as an isolated fact.OCR
De Facto Segregation: A condition in northern and western ghettos that the riots were fundamentally rooted in anger over, alongside severe poverty, poor housing and high…Pearson Edexcel
De facto vs de jure segregation: De jure segregation was dismantled by legislation, but de facto segregation persisted in Northern cities.Pearson Edexcel
Declaration of Independence: A document of July 1776 that formally severed ties with Britain and articulated the philosophical justification for rebellion based on natural rights.Pearson Edexcel
Decline of cavalry: Heavy cavalry charges became highly vulnerable to disciplined pikemen and massed archery, forcing knights to increasingly fight dismounted.Pearson Edexcel
Decolonisation and new independent states: Outside Europe, decolonisation created new independent states that became part of the wider rivalry.OCR
Decree on Land: A measure that abolished private ownership and legitimised peasant land seizures.Pearson Edexcel
Decree on Peace: A declaration of intent calling for an immediate end to Russia's involvement in the First World War.Pearson Edexcel
Decree on Workers' Control: A measure giving factory committees the right to supervise management.Pearson Edexcel
Defeat: Military defeat drove severe political unrest in Germany by November 1918.Pearson Edexcel
Defence versus display: Distinguishing changes made for defence from later work that served comfort and status rather than defence.OCR
Defender of the Faith: Title awarded to Henry VIII by the Pope in 1521 for writing a book attacking Martin Luther, highlighting his early staunch Catholicism.Pearson Edexcel
Defensible siting and use of high ground: A castle needed defensible high ground or a rise above surrounding land as part of what it required from its location.OCR
Degenerate art: Modern, abstract works condemned by the Nazis and replaced by classical, realistic paintings.Pearson Edexcel
Delegation and regency: Reliance on trusted regents, such as Lanfranc and Odo of Bayeux, to govern England in the king's absence.Pearson Edexcel
Delegation of power: Rather than engaging in tedious daily administration, Henry preferred to delegate routine tasks to trusted chief ministers such as Thomas Wolsey.Pearson Edexcel
Democratic centralism: The guiding principle of CCP governance in which democratic discussion at lower levels was passed up the hierarchy, but once the top leadership made a…Pearson Edexcel
Demographic change: Rapid population growth was driven by natural increase and significant immigration from Europe.Pearson Edexcel
Demographic changes: Population growth from roughly three million to four million, which increased demand for food and drove up prices.Pearson Edexcel
Demographic collapse and disease: The indigenous population suffered a massive collapse, primarily due to introduced European diseases like smallpox and typhus, against which they had no…Pearson Edexcel
Demographic shifts: Changes to the population, such as the mass migration of Loyalists that fundamentally shaped the demographic, cultural and political future of modern Canada.Pearson Edexcel
Demographics and occupation: The West Bank and Gaza Strip contained large Palestinian populations, changing Israel's demographic balance.Pearson Edexcel
Denization: An older, more limited grant that gave a foreigner some rights, such as owning land, without full citizenship.OCR
Deposition: The removal of a king, shown when Richard II was deposed by Henry Bolingbroke in 1399, showing that Parliament and nobles could remove a king.OCR
Deserving poor: People who were unable to work, distinguished by the law from 'sturdy beggars' or vagabonds who were able but unemployed.Pearson Edexcel
Destruction of tradition: Communes dismantled traditional family structures by introducing communal dining halls, state-run nurseries and segregated dormitories, separating parents…Pearson Edexcel
Détente: A period of eased tension between the superpowers that followed the Cuban Missile Crisis.Pearson Edexcel
Deterrence: The concept by which both sides stockpiled weapons without actually using them in direct conflict, established as the arms race increased international…OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Devolution and the territorial constitution: Devolution to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland in the late 1990s transferred powers to new bodies, so Westminster no longer legislated alone.OCR
Diagnosis and treatment: Diagnosis relies on sophisticated technology such as CT scans and bronchoscopies to identify tumours early, while treatment utilises scientific advancements…Pearson Edexcel
Dictatorial power: Mao's absolute control over the Party, demonstrated when he purged Peng Dehuai at the Lushan Conference.Pearson Edexcel
Dictatorship and authoritarianism: The Nazis consolidated their dictatorship by systematically dismantling the independence of the legal system so that courts served the regime's interests.Pearson Edexcel
Dictatorship and control: Stalin's achievement of unchallenged control and absolute dictatorship by eliminating political rivals and consolidating his power through the purges.Pearson Edexcel
Differential impact of change on social groups: Barons, knights, the Church, townspeople and peasants each felt the Conquest differently, so continuity is weighed against change.OCR
Diktat: A dictated peace that the Republic was forced to sign.Pearson Edexcel
Diplomacy: Negotiation between the two leaders, which Reagan was willing to engage in with a reformist Soviet leader despite his earlier hardline stance.Pearson Edexcel
Diplomacy and broken treaties: The 1783 Treaty of Paris completely ignored Indigenous land rights and transferred Indigenous lands to the United States without consulting Indigenous leaders.Pearson Edexcel
Diplomacy and negotiation: Secret meetings in Paris between US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese diplomat Le Duc Tho were a key feature of the peace…Pearson Edexcel
Diplomacy and statecraft: Elizabeth's handling of Mary's arrival involved seeking a diplomatic compromise rather than punishing or executing an anointed monarch.Pearson Edexcel
Discrimination: Unequal treatment in areas such as employment and housing, which trapped many Black Americans in poverty.Pearson Edexcel
Discrimination and prejudice: Migrants frequently encountered discrimination in housing and policing, and the Race Relations Act (1965) was the first law to outlaw discrimination on the…Pearson Edexcel
Disenfranchisement: The use of tactics such as poll taxes, literacy tests and intimidation to prevent Black citizens from registering to vote.Pearson Edexcel
Disputed succession: John's claim to the throne in 1199 was contested, as while he was Richard's brother and preferred heir, Arthur of Brittany also had a strong claim.Pearson Edexcel
Disputed succession and civil war under Stephen: After Henry I's death, disputed succession to the throne led to civil war with Matilda's supporters, and barons exploited weak royal authority by building…OCR
Dissent, welfare and political division: Political, economic and social divisions in the USA: anti-Vietnam War protests, campaigns to improve welfare of the poor, Johnson's 'Great Society' and…OCR
Divine Right: Henry believed he was appointed by God, which shaped his views on sovereignty and his personal style of government.Pearson Edexcel
Divine right and religious authority: The coronation ceremony, particularly anointing with holy oil, signified divine approval and transformed the king into God's representative on Earth.Pearson Edexcel
Division of Europe into rival armed blocs: The two alliances divided Europe into opposing armed blocs and deepened Cold War tension.OCR
Division of Europe into rival blocs: Europe divided into a Western bloc tied to the USA through NATO and an Eastern bloc dominated by the USSR.OCR
Division of Germany and Berlin: The wartime Allies split Germany and Berlin into zones, and the Western zones moved towards a separate West German state while the Soviet zone became East…OCR
Dollar imperialism: Stalin's condemnation of the Marshall Plan, viewing it as a deliberate American strategy to establish economic dominance in Europe and undermine Soviet…Pearson Edexcel
Domesday Book: The final written record compiled in 1086 from the evidence gathered by commissioners, as distinct from the survey, which was the process of gathering the…Pearson Edexcel
Domesday survey: Ordered in 1085 by William I under threat of Danish invasion, it was a massive logistical exercise to record landholding across England, gathering evidence…Pearson Edexcel
domestic anti-war sentiment: Opposition to the war within the US, which Nixon aimed to appease by reducing American casualties.Pearson Edexcel
Domestic impact of foreign policy: The shootings showed the conflict was bringing violence to American soil and caused national outrage.Pearson Edexcel
Domestic life in a castle: The keep and the great hall served the household of its lords, providing chambers, kitchens, storage and space for eating and meeting.OCR
Domestic political pressure: Intense US domestic pressure and the economic strain of the war drove the peace negotiations of 1972–73.Pearson Edexcel
Domestic politics and public opinion: The anti-war movement steadily eroded public support and placed immense political pressure on US Presidents.Pearson Edexcel
Domino Theory: The idea that if South Vietnam fell to communism, neighbouring countries would follow, threatening US security.Pearson Edexcel
DORA (Defence of the Realm Act): Legislation passed in August 1914 giving the British government sweeping powers to control civilian life during the First World War, including censorship,…OCR
Draft system: Conscription that fuelled resentment as it disproportionately conscripted working-class and minority men, leading to draft-dodging and draft-card burnings.Pearson Edexcel
Dragoons: Mounted infantry who rode to battle but fought on foot, forming lighter, firearm-equipped units.Pearson Edexcel
Drawings in local histories: Drawings printed in local histories add visual detail about walls, towers and water features, though they may be romanticised or inaccurate.OCR
Driving offences: New crimes such as speeding and driving under the influence of alcohol arose from mass ownership of the car.Pearson Edexcel
Drug crimes: The 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act classified drugs and made their possession and supply illegal.Pearson Edexcel
Dry farming: A new method used to conserve soil moisture.Pearson Edexcel
Dual Control: The sharing of power between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, which made the government inherently weak from its inception.Pearson Edexcel
Dual Power: A sharing of power between the unelected Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, which limited the government's authority.Pearson Edexcel
Dynastic security: The safety of the Tudor dynasty, threatened because Henry feared a female monarch would lead to civil war.Pearson Edexcel

E

East India Company: Its commercial and political role extended as trade with India and China grew and it established a base at Kolkata.OCR
Easter Offensive: The 1972 offensive that massive US air support was critical in halting, demonstrating that the ARVN could not defend South Vietnam independently.Pearson Edexcel
Eastern European Jewish settlement and experience: Arriving mainly from the 1880s, these immigrants settled largely in London's East End and other cities, worked in tailoring and other trades, and faced…OCR
Economic and social devastation: The immediate impact was a catastrophic famine with an estimated 100,000 deaths, and the Domesday Book recorded vast tracts of Yorkshire as 'waste' with land…Pearson Edexcel
Economic blockade: A measure maintained by Egypt, denying Israeli ships access to the Suez Canal and the Straits of Tiran, which severely restricted Israel's trade.Pearson Edexcel
Economic cause and consequence: Tracing how the depression began with the Wall Street Crash and spread as American loans were recalled and world trade shrank, rather than listing facts.OCR
Economic change through roads and barracks: Building roads and barracks served military control and later economic change in the Highlands, while Lowland towns gained trade and roads.OCR
Economic collapse: Hyperinflation and economic collapse alienated the urban middle classes, workers, and students.Pearson Edexcel
Economic competition: Economic rivalry caused hostility from the existing population towards migrants.Pearson Edexcel
Economic consequences of war: The British victory left Britain with massive war debts, fundamentally altering the political and economic landscape of the colonies.Pearson Edexcel
Economic contribution and skill transfer: The Huguenots were highly skilled, bringing expertise in silk weaving, silversmithing and clockmaking, which boosted the English economy.Pearson Edexcel
Economic contributions: Growth stimulated by groups such as Jewish financiers establishing financial networks and Flemish weavers advancing the cloth trade.Pearson Edexcel
Economic dependence on enslaved labour: The reliance of Southern plantation economies on enslaved labour, which meant the new United States Constitution protected slavery.Pearson Edexcel
Economic development: The gradual growth of towns, which created new urban opportunities for migrants, and the wool industry, which acted as a major pull factor attracting skilled…Pearson Edexcel
Economic disruption and stagnation: Severe disruption across China, with industrial output crippled and agricultural production stagnating because political ideology was prioritised over…Pearson Edexcel
Economic efficiency: It was a failure for agricultural production, as grain harvests fell modestly and the mass slaughter of livestock caused a collapse.Pearson Edexcel
Economic expansion vs traditional life: The relentless encroachment of these industries destroyed the buffalo-dependent economy of the Plains tribes.Pearson Edexcel
Economic exploitation: The Aztecs were stripped of their wealth and subjected to the brutal encomienda system, forcing them into harsh labour to enrich their new Spanish overlords.Pearson Edexcel
Economic factors: Some individuals were motivated by the prospect of financial gain through plunder, while others sought to escape debts or legal troubles back in England.Pearson Edexcel
Economic hardship: The difficulty caused by inflation worsened by poor harvests and the debasement of the coinage, which increased prices and hit the lower classes.Pearson Edexcel
Economic hardship as a cause: A reason for migration that must be identified only where it genuinely applies to the named group.OCR
Economic impact: The conflict cost the federal government an estimated $167 billion, triggering severe inflation and a soaring national deficit.Pearson Edexcel
Economic Inequality: Systemic economic deprivation, alongside white racism, which the Kerner Report blamed for the riots.Pearson Edexcel
Economic intimidation: A method used by White Citizens' Councils, such as firing black employees who registered to vote or evicting them, to suppress civil rights activism.Pearson Edexcel
Economic migration: Movement driven by economic opportunity, a continuous pull factor drawing Irish labourers, Commonwealth citizens and European Union migrants to Britain.Pearson Edexcel
Economic monopoly and trade: The Crown established the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to enforce a strict monopoly on trade, ensuring wealth flowed directly to Spain.Pearson Edexcel
Economic opportunity: A pull factor such as gold, which drew hundreds of thousands of 'Forty-Niners' westward in search of instant wealth.Pearson Edexcel
Economic planning and industrialisation: The First Five-Year Plan demanded rapid industrialisation, and the state needed to extract more grain from the countryside to feed urban workers.Pearson Edexcel
Economic policy: The NEP was failing to industrialise Russia quickly enough, and the Scissors Crisis and the 1927 grain procurement crisis highlighted its limitations.Pearson Edexcel
Economic power: The Church was a major landowner within the feudal system, holding vast estates and collecting the tithe, a ten percent tax on agricultural produce.Pearson Edexcel
Economic power and land ownership: Monasteries were significant local employers and landlords, managing vast agricultural estates and providing work for labourers and craftsmen.Pearson Edexcel
Economic pressure: The strain placed on the bus company by the boycott, which mattered because the black community comprised 75% of bus riders.Pearson Edexcel
Economic recovery: The rescue of China from the devastation of the Great Leap Forward, as the collapse of agricultural and industrial production was the primary reason for the…Pearson Edexcel
Economic resentment: Hostility that frequently sparked xenophobic unrest, such as the Evil May Day riots of 1517.Pearson Edexcel
Economic response through the Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan of 1947 provided economic aid to rebuild Western Europe, and these responses deepened the division of Europe.OCR
Economic revitalisation: The profound economic impact of Asian migration, with the community establishing thriving businesses and transforming areas of Leicester.Pearson Edexcel
Economic rivalry: Personal vendettas and economic rivalries drove conflict, as demonstrated by the shootout at the OK Corral in 1881.Pearson Edexcel
Economic roles: Because the Church forbade Christians from charging interest, Jews played a vital economic role in moneylending.Pearson Edexcel
Economic self-reliance: Facing financial exclusion from traditional British banks, the community relied on mutual self-help organisations such as 'pardner' schemes.Pearson Edexcel
Economic shifts: Changes in the economy, including trade moving from Scandinavia to the continent and the devastation of the North.Pearson Edexcel
Economic stabilisation: Measures such as the Rentenmark, the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan stabilised the economy and ushered in the 'Golden Years'.Pearson Edexcel
Economic tension and taxation: Opposition arose because the Sugar Act disrupted the colonial economy, particularly the rum industry in New England, and was introduced to raise revenue from…Pearson Edexcel
Economic transformation: Economic growth was driven by the booming cloth industry, which relied on migrant skills, and the establishment of global trading companies, expanding…Pearson Edexcel
Economy and finance: Taking London gave the rebels control of the kingdom's financial hub, and disgruntled Londoners angry at John's taxation opened the gates to them.Pearson Edexcel
Education and indoctrination: Mao's radical reform of education, wanting a system that prioritised political loyalty and practical labour over academic elitism.Pearson Edexcel
Education and literacy: Religious houses served as educational centres, offering schooling for local children and preserving knowledge through libraries.Pearson Edexcel
Education as propaganda: The Nazis weaponised the education system to indoctrinate the young, ensuring schools reinforced state ideology.Pearson Edexcel
Educational desegregation: The struggle to desegregate higher education in the US South, which the James Meredith case of 1962 highlights.Pearson Edexcel
Edward Teach ('Blackbeard'): A pirate who blockaded Charles Town in 1718, terrorising merchants and challenging colonial authorities.Pearson Edexcel
Effects of the Great Depression: Economic and social effects such as mass unemployment, bank failures, homelessness and falling farm incomes.OCR
Effects on superpower relations: It reduced direct confrontation over Berlin while hardening the division between East and West.OCR
Eight Model Plays: The only theatrical performances permitted, commissioned by Jiang Qing, such as 'The Red Lantern'.Pearson Edexcel
Elimination of opposition: Stalin used the trials to remove potential political rivals and destroy the old party leadership, ensuring the Communist Party was entirely loyal to him alone.Pearson Edexcel
Elizabeth I's wars with Spain in Europe and the new world: Conflicts fought both in Europe, notably in the Netherlands, and in the new world across the Atlantic.OCR
Elizabethan foreign policy: The conduct of England's affairs abroad, in which privateering held strategic importance and Drake acted under Elizabeth I's commission.Pearson Edexcel
Elizabethan remodelling and royal hospitality: The castle was remodelled so that it could receive Elizabeth I in comfort, with enlarged windows, a new range of lodgings and a garden laid out for display…OCR
Empire and trade routes: Links that connected British ports to Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia, to which the growth of diverse port communities should be connected.OCR
Employment and economy: The lack of employment opportunities was a feature of the area, with many residents relying on casual labour such as dock work or sweatshops.Pearson Edexcel
Enabling Act: Passed in March 1933, it gave Hitler the power to make laws without the Reichstag's approval for four years, effectively ending Weimar democracy.Pearson Edexcel
Encomienda: A Spanish colonial labour grant system in which the Crown assigned a number of indigenous people to a Spanish colonist (the encomendero).OCR
Encomienda system: Granted Spanish settlers the right to demand tribute and forced labour from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianisation.Pearson Edexcel
encyclical 'With Burning Anxiety': Issued by Pope Pius XI in 1937, condemning Nazi breaches of the Concordat and their racial ideology.Pearson Edexcel
Ending of the Vietnam War: The closing phase of the Vietnam War, in which US combat forces withdrew after the Paris Peace Accords and North Vietnamese forces took Saigon.OCR
Enforcement of policy and responses of ordinary people: Policies were enforced through visitations and royal instructions, and ordinary people responded in mixed ways, some accepting change and others resisting.OCR
English resistance after 1066: Local risings such as the northern revolt of 1069 and Hereward's resistance in the Fens, and how William I answered them.OCR
Enlightenment: A movement that promoted scientific reasoning over superstition and drove the ending of witchcraft prosecutions.Pearson Edexcel
Enlightenment ideas: Ideals that Thomas Jefferson synthesised with colonial grievances in the Declaration to justify the American cause.Pearson Edexcel
Entrepreneurship: The activity of figures such as Iliff, McCoy and Goodnight, whose roles drove the growth of the cattle industry.Pearson Edexcel
Environment and terrain: The devastated ground of deep mud and cratered landscapes that made stretcher-bearing exhausting and slow.Pearson Edexcel
Environmental Adaptation: Adapting farming methods to the environment, such as dry farming and hardy Russian winter wheat, so crops could thrive despite the low rainfall.Pearson Edexcel
Environmental change: Railroad construction divided buffalo herds and brought hunters who decimated the buffalo population, while cattle competed with buffalo for grazing land and…Pearson Edexcel
Environmental health hazards: Ill health arising from the trench environment, such as trench foot from waterlogged conditions and trench fever transmitted by lice.Pearson Edexcel
Escalation: The increase of the conflict and of US involvement in Vietnam under President Johnson, driven by the deteriorating situation in South Vietnam and specific…Pearson Edexcel
Escalation of conflict: Tensions escalated as Britain deployed troops to maintain order, culminating in the Boston Massacre of 1770, which significantly widened the rift between…Pearson Edexcel
Escalation of persecution: The gradual increase in severity of persecution, starting with economic boycotts, moving to legal restrictions, and culminating in physical violence.Pearson Edexcel
Espionage and security: Walsingham developed a sophisticated intelligence network employing spies, double agents and cryptographers to intercept coded correspondence, demonstrating…Pearson Edexcel
Establishing control: Forcing the surrender of the surviving English leadership so that William could be crowned.Pearson Edexcel
Estate administration: Collecting rents and dues, keeping accounts and storing produce, so the castle acted as an administrative hub for the lands around it.OCR
EU free movement and 'open borders': Issues concerning free movement of people within the European Union, with supporters stressing labour mobility and rights and critics raising concerns about…OCR
EU membership: This facilitated the free movement of European workers into and out of Britain.Pearson Edexcel
European diplomacy and rivalries: The complex political relationships between European rulers, which Richard had strained by alienating several of them during the crusade.Pearson Edexcel
evacuation: The implementation of plans to relocate children and vulnerable individuals from London to rural areas to safeguard the population.Pearson Edexcel
Everyday life: Peasant life was dictated by the agricultural calendar and involved backbreaking labour such as ploughing and harvesting.Pearson Edexcel
Evidence: Documents such as bills, accounts and inventories, produced in the ordinary course of managing the castle rather than written to describe it for later readers.OCR
Evidence analysis: Examining a piece of evidence to identify gaps in knowledge and formulate targeted questions to uncover missing information.Pearson Edexcel
Evidence gaps: Missing information or perspectives in a source that historians identify when determining what further information is needed.Pearson Edexcel
Evidence matching: Matching the type of evidence to the precise nature of the enquiry, ensuring a direct logical link between the question asked and the type of document chosen.Pearson Edexcel
Evidence selection: Choosing sources that provide specific, reliable details which directly answer the enquiry question, rather than ones only generally related to the time period.Pearson Edexcel
Evidence-based location: Testing each location offered against what you know about the site rather than choosing the option that merely sounds familiar, and rejecting a plausible but…OCR
Evil empire: The phrase Reagan famously used to describe the Soviet Union as part of his tough anti-communist stance.Pearson Edexcel
Evil May Day riots: Unrest in 1517 where Londoners attacked foreign merchants accused of taking local jobs and driving up prices.Pearson Edexcel
Exchequer: Part of the administrative system that helped the kingdom function effectively without the king.Pearson Edexcel
Exoduster movement: The 1879 movement in which thousands of African Americans migrated from the South to Kansas, escaping racial oppression.Pearson Edexcel
Exploitation and forced labour: The brutal use of enslaved people as the workforce on plantations, which became entirely dependent on forced labour.Pearson Edexcel
Exploration and discovery: Balboa led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama, becoming the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean from the New World.Pearson Edexcel
Exploration and expansion: Panama served as the base for further Spanish expeditions, most notably Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire.Pearson Edexcel
Exploration and mapping: Columbus first explored the Bahamas, landing on an island he named San Salvador, then navigated through the Caribbean, exploring the coastlines of Cuba and…Pearson Edexcel
Expressionist cinema: Innovative films produced in Germany, such as Fritz Lang's sci-fi masterpiece 'Metropolis', which helped establish Berlin as a global cultural hub.Pearson Edexcel
Expulsion and integration: Edward I expelled the Jews from England in 1290; for aliens, the extent of integration is assessed using evidence of settlement, intermarriage or legal status.OCR

F

Factionalism and court politics: Rivalry at court between the reformist Cromwell and the conservative faction led by the Duke of Norfolk, who exploited Cromwell's failures to plot against him.Pearson Edexcel
Failure of 'total strategy' and Cuito Cuanavale: Divisions grew within the National Party, and 'total strategy' failed, including after the defeat at Cuito Cuanavale.OCR
Failure of the League of Nations: It lacked its own army, the USA never joined, and it could not stop aggression such as Japan's invasion of Manchuria or Italy's invasion of Abyssinia.OCR
Fall of Saigon: The event that followed the eventual departure of US forces in 1973.OCR
Fall of Saigon 1975: North Vietnamese forces took Saigon in April 1975 and South Vietnam fell.OCR
Family conflict: The highly strained relationship between William I and Robert Curthose, which erupted into Robert's revolt in Normandy between 1077 and 1080.Pearson Edexcel
Fatimid Caliphate: A Shia Muslim caliphate based in Egypt.OCR
Fear of rebellion: A pervasive fear of insurrections and the fragility of social order in densely populated British colonial cities.Pearson Edexcel
Fedayeen: Palestinian guerrillas permitted by Egypt, which controlled the Gaza Strip, to launch cross-border raids into Israeli territory.Pearson Edexcel
Federal intervention: President Eisenhower federalised the National Guard and sent the 101st Airborne Division to escort the students, showing the federal government would use…Pearson Edexcel
Federal legislation: The Civil Rights Act (1957), passed to protect black voting rights, which was highly significant as the first federal civil rights legislation since…Pearson Edexcel
Federal Republic of Germany: The capitalist West German state created in May 1949 as a result of the crisis, which cemented the division of Germany.Pearson Edexcel
Federal vs local authority: The federal government increased its influence by appointing US Marshals and federal judges, while at the local level town marshals and county sheriffs were…Pearson Edexcel
Federal vs State power: The tension between state and federal government regarding civil rights, shown when federal power was used to enforce civil rights rulings against defiant…Pearson Edexcel
felony: The category under which witchcraft was treated in England, meaning those convicted were typically executed by hanging rather than burning.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal duties: Obligations that required commoners to leave their farms to fight or provide logistical support, disrupting agriculture and leading to food shortages.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal hierarchy: A strict structure of medieval society based on landholding, running from the king to tenants-in-chief, under-tenants and peasants.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal incidents: Financial obligations owed by tenants-in-chief, such as wardship, marriage fines and relief.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal levy: The system where tenants-in-chief provided a quota of knights to the king in exchange for land, typically serving for 40 days.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal obligations: Villeins were tied to the lord's land, owing labour services like boon work and week work in exchange for their own plots.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal obligations and rights: The king held extensive rights, such as raising taxes, minting coinage, and demanding military service from his barons.Pearson Edexcel
Feudal obligations between monarch and barons: A baron held land from the king in return for military service, counsel and financial obligations such as relief and scutage, while the king owed protection…OCR
Feudal rights and obligations: The barons sought to protect their feudal rights, and Magna Carta limited scutage without the consent of the realm.Pearson Edexcel
Feudalism: The existing system of landholding which the Domesday Book recorded and formalised rather than created, legally recording the transfer of land from…Pearson Edexcel
Financial burden: The economic pressures caused by Richard's campaigns and ransom, which exacerbated grievances under John.Pearson Edexcel
Financial cost of war: Wages, supplies, transport, horses, armour and fortifications drained royal and noble finances, and taxation and purveyance shifted the burden onto ordinary…OCR
Financial pressure and the calling of Parliament: Charles called Parliament in 1640 because the Bishops' Wars against Scotland left him short of money and unable to crush Scottish resistance to his prayer book.OCR
Fines: Payments made to the king for feudal privileges, inheritances, or to regain his favour, increased arbitrarily to extract maximum wealth from the nobility.Pearson Edexcel
First Barons' War: Broke out in late 1215 because King John refused to honour Magna Carta and Pope Innocent III declared it invalid.Pearson Edexcel
First Boer War: A war that ended in British defeat at Majuba Hill and the Pretoria Convention.OCR
First Continental Congress: The body convened by colonists across America after the Intolerable Acts outraged them, pushing the colonies to the brink of armed rebellion against British…Pearson Edexcel
First Five Year Plan: An industrial policy that prioritised heavy industry under Mao.OCR
First Palestinian Intifada: A spontaneous grassroots uprising against Israeli rule in the occupied territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip between 1987 and 1993.Pearson Edexcel
First Transcontinental Railroad (1869): Connected the East and West coasts, reducing a perilous months-long journey to a matter of days.Pearson Edexcel
Five Antis: Movement launched by Mao in 1952 that targeted the capitalist class, focusing on bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating on government…Pearson Edexcel
Flappers: Young women in the 1920s who challenged traditional social norms through their dress, behavior, and lifestyle choices.Eduqas
Flintlock: A later firing mechanism for muskets whose improvement over the matchlock increased reliability and rate of fire.Pearson Edexcel
Focused question: A question that is narrow and explicitly linked to the specific enquiry's theme, keeping the investigation targeted.Pearson Edexcel
Food prices, shortages and popular protest: Taxation and the blockade pushed up prices and food shortages, prompting the 1795 and 1800 food riots and the 1816 Spa Fields unrest.OCR
Forced displacement: Migration caused by global conflicts, increasing the number of refugees and asylum seekers fleeing persecution, such as Belgians or Ugandans.Pearson Edexcel
Forced labour: Free slave labour provided by labour camp inmates for massive industrial projects, such as the White Sea Canal.Pearson Edexcel
Forced migration and the slave trade: Some Africans were brought to England against their will through the developing slave trade.OCR
Foreign ambitions: Spain's desire to expand its wealth and influence to compete with its rival, Portugal, which dominated the African trade routes.Pearson Edexcel
Foreign intervention: Half-hearted support from Britain, France and the USA that allowed the Bolsheviks to present themselves as patriotic defenders of Russia against foreign…Pearson Edexcel
Foreign policy and alliances: The marriage to Anne of Cleves was driven by this, as Cromwell sought an alliance with the Schmalkaldic League to counter the threat of a joint Catholic…Pearson Edexcel
Foreign policy and invasion: William's motive to expand Norman power and Hardrada's ambition to recreate the North Sea Empire, both pursued through claims to the English throne.Pearson Edexcel
Foreign policy and war: A primary aim as monarch was to establish himself as a glorious warrior king through military victories, particularly against France.Pearson Edexcel
Foreign relations: Mary was a separate Scottish monarch whose claim to the English throne made her a powerful alternative to Elizabeth.Pearson Edexcel
Forest Laws: These declared vast tracts of English woodland as royal forests, criminalising previously legal activities for peasants such as hunting deer, cutting wood or…Pearson Edexcel
Forfeiture: The legal confiscation of a vassal's land by a lord when the vassal breaches oaths or fails to provide the required service.Pearson Edexcel
Formation of NATO in 1949: NATO was set up in 1949 by the USA, Britain, Canada and other Western states, pledging collective defence.OCR
Formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955: The Soviet Union responded to West Germany joining NATO by forming the Warsaw Pact with its Eastern European satellite states.OCR
Fortified buildings: Society adapted to warfare through tower houses, pele towers and fortified bastle houses, alongside kinship loyalties and a readiness to mobilise quickly.OCR
Fortified burhs and defence: Fortified burhs and reorganised armies under Alfred and his successors, a response to the raids.OCR
Four Modernisations: Deng's changes targeting agriculture, industry, defence and science and technology.OCR
Four Olds: Old ideas, culture, customs and habits, which the Cultural Revolution assaulted.Pearson Edexcel
Freikorps: Right-wing paramilitary groups of demobilised soldiers, used by the government to crush the Spartacist revolt but who also posed a threat from the Right.Pearson Edexcel
French and Spanish involvement: Provided crucial financial aid, naval power, and troops, with the French navy playing a critical role in trapping the British at Yorktown.Pearson Edexcel
French occupation of the Ruhr: Action taken to extract unpaid reparations in the form of goods and raw materials, whose effects included violence, economic paralysis and a collapse in the…Pearson Edexcel
French royal domain: The lands Philip II aimed to expand by conquering Normandy.Pearson Edexcel
Frontier society: Chaotic frontier towns were transformed into stable communities through growing federal and local infrastructure, moving from lawlessness to regulated…Pearson Edexcel
Fugitives: Runaways who were captured and returned under colonial laws, using slave patrols and bounties, and faced severe physical punishments such as whipping or…Pearson Edexcel
Führer: The title Hitler created by merging the offices of Chancellor and President after Hindenburg's death, making him the undisputed supreme leader of Germany.Pearson Edexcel
Fur trade: A lucrative trade that the British sought to control and regulate to monopolise it and prevent conflict.Pearson Edexcel

G

Gang of Four: A radical faction removed from power after Mao's death.OCR
gas masks: Distributed to the entire population to mitigate the threat of chemical attacks, with public information campaigns enforcing their carriage.Pearson Edexcel
Gender equality: Laws changed for women, with divorce simplified, abortion legalised and female employment promoted, but women still faced a 'double burden' of work and…Pearson Edexcel
Gender roles: While many women returned to domestic roles after the First World War, there was a notable increase in female professionals, such as teachers and shop workers.Pearson Edexcel
general strike: The response called by the government which paralysed the city and forced Kapp to flee, defeating the Putsch.Pearson Edexcel
genetic factors: Influences on health that can be identified through understanding the structure of DNA, shifting focus towards hereditary diseases.Pearson Edexcel
genetic screening: A form of prevention that became a focus of public health campaigns alongside lifestyle changes.Pearson Edexcel
Geographical advantages: Control of the central industrial heartlands gave access to munitions and the railway network for rapid troop deployment.Pearson Edexcel
Geographical challenges: The dangers of the journey west, shown concretely by the Donner Party becoming trapped by snow in the Sierra Nevada after taking the Hastings Cutoff.Pearson Edexcel
Geographical knowledge: The discovery proved that a vast ocean separated the Americas from Asia, stimulating further exploration to find a westward sea route to the Spice Islands.Pearson Edexcel
Geographical location of Kenilworth Castle: Stands in the English Midlands, in the county of Warwickshire, at the town of Kenilworth a short distance south-west of Coventry and south-east of Birmingham.OCR
Geopolitics: The shift in power when the collapse of the Soviet Union removed the primary backer of radical Arab states, leaving the USA as the sole superpower.Pearson Edexcel
Germ Theory: Louis Pasteur's theory, published in 1861, which proved that microbes in the air caused decay, challenging spontaneous generation.Pearson Edexcel
German Democratic Republic: The communist East German state created in October 1949, formalising the Cold War divide in Europe.Pearson Edexcel
German Labour Front (DAF): A state-controlled organisation that replaced independent trade unions, regulated hours and wages, and banned strikes to ensure industrial peace.Pearson Edexcel
Gleichschaltung: The broader Nazi policy of co-ordination, to which the creation of the Reich Church is linked.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Global expansion: Privateering and overseas trade brought wealth and diverse populations to port cities, connecting England to the wider world.Pearson Edexcel
Global exploration: Magellan's expedition aimed to find a western sea route to the Spice Islands and proved the globe could be circumnavigated.Pearson Edexcel
Globalisation and international crime: Modern smugglers traffic illegal drugs and people, using sophisticated international networks.Pearson Edexcel
Glorious Revolution and Hanoverian succession: The removal of James II and accession of William and Mary in 1688, kept separate from the Hanoverian succession of 1714.OCR
Golan Heights: A heavily fortified territory captured by Israel in an offensive against Syria.Pearson Edexcel
Government administration: The Church's role in government communication, with parish priests reading out royal proclamations and reinforcing the message of obedience during sermons.Pearson Edexcel
Government and administration: The massive extraction of wealth demonstrated the efficiency of the English government in raising the funds.Pearson Edexcel
Government and law enforcement: Records of crimes and high-level police investigations, including Home Office files, reveal the government's response to policing challenges.Pearson Edexcel
Government and Presidential power: Increased government and Presidential powers included control of wages and prices, and the population responded to US involvement in war.OCR
Government control: The revolt led to harsher treatment of Catholics and a permanent shift in Elizabeth's policy towards religious nonconformity.Pearson Edexcel
Government debt and colonial taxation: The gains increased government debt, which led to new colonial taxation such as the Stamp Act of 1765.OCR
Government intervention: The shift away from laissez-faire attitudes towards compulsory measures, such as making smallpox vaccination compulsory in 1853 and compelling local…Pearson Edexcel
Government legislation on nationality: Legislation that shaped who could become British and on what terms, determining membership of the nation.OCR
Government policy: The approach that initially aimed to separate groups via the 'Permanent Indian Frontier', moving eastern tribes west, and later shifted towards concentrating…Pearson Edexcel
Government policy and withdrawal: Intense domestic opposition restricted military escalation and accelerated the US exit from Vietnam.Pearson Edexcel
Government repression and control: Punishment and control imposed by the government after the 1715 and 1745 risings, including confiscating estates, disarming clans, building roads and…OCR
Government Response: President Johnson commissioned the Kerner Report in 1968 to investigate the causes of the riots, though its recommendations for massive social investment were…Pearson Edexcel
Governor-General: The title Robert Dudley accepted without Elizabeth's permission, implying that England intended to permanently annex Spanish territory.Pearson Edexcel
Grain procurement crisis: A crisis in which peasants hoarded grain to drive up prices, threatening food supplies for the urban workforce.Pearson Edexcel
Grain requisitioning: The forced seizure of grain from the peasantry by armed detachments, which peasants resented as violent.Pearson Edexcel
Grassroots activism: Civil rights groups like SNCC and CORE organised the campaign, and volunteers established Freedom Schools in Mississippi.Pearson Edexcel
Grassroots resistance: Opposition organised at community level, where White Citizens' Councils were established from 1954, primarily responding to the Brown v.Pearson Edexcel
grassroots uprising: A movement that began spontaneously without formal PLO leadership, involving mass boycotts, strikes and stone-throwing youths.Pearson Edexcel
Great Awakening: A major religious revival that swept through the British North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, profoundly impacting colonial society.Pearson Edexcel
Growth of royal power: Under Henry VIII royal power grew: he broke with Rome in the 1530s and made himself head of the Church of England.OCR
Guerrilla tactics: Methods including 'hit-and-run' ambushes, where fighters would attack US patrols and quickly melt back into the jungle or civilian population.Pearson Edexcel
Guilds: Groups that controlled trade and manufacturing, ensuring quality and protecting members' interests.Pearson Edexcel
Gulag: A vast network of labour camps used to punish perceived enemies of the state and provide free slave labour for massive industrial projects.Pearson Edexcel
Gulag system: Where political prisoners and kulaks were relegated, experiencing extreme deprivation and forced labour.Pearson Edexcel
Gulf of Tonkin incident: Event in August 1964 in which US destroyers, including the USS Maddox, were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats.Pearson Edexcel
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: Measure passed by Congress granting Johnson sweeping powers to use military force without a formal declaration of war, described as a 'blank cheque' for…Pearson Edexcel

H

H Division: The police division to which the policing of Whitechapel fell, relying on the beat constable.Pearson Edexcel
Hard Hat Riot: In May 1970, construction workers in New York City attacked anti-war protesters in what became known as the Hard Hat Riot.Pearson Edexcel
Hard hats: A colloquial term for patriotic, pro-war construction and blue-collar workers, a more vocal, working-class faction of support for the war.Pearson Edexcel
Hardship and survival: Early migration westward before 1850 was fraught with extreme peril, requiring meticulous planning and resilience, with challenges including disease, weather,…Pearson Edexcel
Henry VIII, annulment and Reformation Parliament: His desire to annul his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon drove his break with Rome, and the Reformation Parliament passed legislation limiting papal…OCR
Hereditary right vs military might: Edgar the Aethling had the strongest hereditary claim as Edward's great-nephew, but his youth and lack of military backing meant the Witan bypassed him for a…Pearson Edexcel
Heresy: Holding beliefs contrary to the monarch's religion, a crime whose definition changed depending on the monarch's faith.Pearson Edexcel
Hezbollah: A new, militant anti-Israeli force in Lebanon that emerged as a long-term result of the invasion.Pearson Edexcel
Hierarchy and order: Elizabethan society was strictly hierarchical, structured around the Great Chain of Being, and people were expected to remain in the social class they were…Pearson Edexcel
High-tech medical and surgical treatment: Hospitals transformed into centres for this, utilising advanced machinery for dialysis and complex procedures like organ transplants and keyhole surgery.Pearson Edexcel
Highland clan society and land ownership: Highland clans lost land and weapons through estate confiscation and disarming, and after 1745 the government ended heritable jurisdictions, the private legal…OCR
Highway robbery: A crime against property that peaked in the 18th century as improved turnpike roads increased coach travel, and declined by the 1830s due to mounted patrols,…Pearson Edexcel
Historic environment: The site being studied, in this case Notting Hill, c1948–c1970, which framed questions must explicitly link to.Pearson Edexcel
Historical enquiry: A specific investigation that precise questions drive forward, requiring active engagement with the evidence and a clear understanding of the research…Pearson Edexcel
Historical evidence: Local sources, such as newspapers, council and police records, housing and employment records, memoirs and photographs, are used for historical enquiries.Pearson Edexcel
Hitler Youth: An organisation for boys that prepared them for military service through rigorous physical training, camping and weapons handling, fostering aggression and…Pearson Edexcel
Hitler's popularity and the National Community: The personal popularity of Hitler and attempts to create a National Community, which should be recognised as an attempt rather than fully achieved.OCR
Ho Chi Minh Trail: A crucial logistical artery, a vast network of jungle paths that continuously supplied the Vietcong with troops and weapons from the North despite relentless…Pearson Edexcel
Holodomor: The man-made famine in Ukraine, listed as a feature of the persecution of ethnic minorities.Pearson Edexcel
Home Front: The organisation of civilian life during the First and Second World Wars, involving mass mobilisation, rationing and civilian recruitment into industries.Pearson Edexcel
Home Secretary: The Metropolitan Police was ultimately controlled by the Home Secretary, reflecting its national importance.Pearson Edexcel
Homestead Act (1862): Offered 160 acres of free land to anyone willing to farm it for five years, spurring massive migration to the Plains.Pearson Edexcel
Homesteaders: Settlers who began claiming land under the 1862 Homestead Act, competing with ranchers who needed vast, unfenced areas for grazing and access to water.Pearson Edexcel
Hospital Care: Improvements in this were influenced by Nightingale, who emphasised sanitation, ventilation and pavilion-style designs, drastically reducing mortality rates.Pearson Edexcel
Hostility and colour bars: Many met colour bars in housing and work, so experiences mixed welcome with hostility.OCR
Hotline: A direct communications link established in 1963 between Washington and Moscow to prevent future misunderstandings.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
House of Trade: The institution, founded in Seville in 1503, that strictly regulated all commerce, navigation and emigration to the New World.Pearson Edexcel
Household officials: Stewards, receivers and constables managed these tasks on the owner's behalf.OCR
Housing and living conditions: Many migrants were forced into houses of multiple occupation, leading to severe overcrowding and squalid conditions.Pearson Edexcel
Hue and cry: A community duty where anyone witnessing a crime had to raise the alarm, and the village was obligated to hunt down the suspect.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Huguenots: Protestant refugees fleeing persecution in France who arrived from the 1670s.OCR
Human casualties: Over 58,000 American military personnel were killed and approximately 300,000 were wounded.Pearson Edexcel
Human cost: The most profound failure was the human tragedy, culminating in millions of deaths during the 1932-1933 famines.Pearson Edexcel
Human impact of the Cold War: The Wall separated families and caused citizens of Berlin to lose their livelihoods.Pearson Edexcel
Human rights: The Helsinki Accords secured agreements on human rights as one of three 'baskets', and these commitments empowered Soviet dissidents.Pearson Edexcel
Hundred Flowers campaign: A campaign that invited criticism, with intentions and impact including a later backlash against those who spoke out.OCR
Hyperinflation: A rapid, uncontrollable devaluation of currency, distinct from normal inflation, which devastated the middle classes whose savings became worthless and…Pearson Edexcel

I

Ibadat Khana: The 'House of Worship' built by Akbar in 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri.OCR
ICBMs: Intercontinental ballistic missiles, developed by both sides alongside devastating hydrogen bombs, forming part of the arms race.Pearson Edexcel
Ideas and beliefs: Reformist theological ideas were promoted, and traditional Catholic practices such as pilgrimages and the veneration of relics were attacked.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological commitment: The commitment of North Vietnam's people, on which its ultimate victory relied as a fundamental strength against US forces.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological conformity: Enforcement of loyalty to the state, encouraged through citizens informing on one another and the destruction of traditional social bonds.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological consolidation: The victory of the nationalist, anti-Semitic southern faction over the socialist-leaning northern faction, creating a highly disciplined machine.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological control: Eradicating diverse beliefs so as to create a unified, atheistic society entirely devoted to revolutionary ideology and the state.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological division: The Cold War split of Europe, which the Wall physically cemented even as it reduced the immediate threat of nuclear war over Berlin.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological divisions: Growing divisions within global communism, shown by communist parties in France and Italy criticising Soviet actions and by Romania and Yugoslavia voicing…Pearson Edexcel
Ideological flexibility: Stalin adopted the policy of 'Socialism in One Country', which appealed to party patriotism, and later turned against Bukharin and the NEP by adopting rapid…Pearson Edexcel
Ideological foundations: 'Mein Kampf' outlined core beliefs including Lebensraum, anti-Semitism and the Führerprinzip, acting as the ideological blueprint for the future Nazi state.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological implementation: Aligning agriculture with socialist ideology and eliminating private land ownership was considered a major ideological success by the Communist Party.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological indoctrination: Education was used to indoctrinate children with communist values, aiming to create the 'New Soviet Man' rather than simply to spread literacy.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological purity: The NEP's tolerance of capitalist Nepmen and private trade contradicted Marxist principles, which Stalin sought to replace with a fully socialist command…Pearson Edexcel
Ideological shifts and reform: Gorbachev introduced 'Glasnost' (openness) and 'Perestroika' (restructuring), encouraging reform in the Soviet Union.Pearson Edexcel
Ideological struggle: Former elites wanted to defeat socialism, while the Bolsheviks secured their grip on power and established a highly centralised, authoritarian state.Pearson Edexcel
Ideology: Mao’s ideas adapted Marxism to Chinese conditions by identifying the rural peasantry, rather than the urban proletariat, as the revolutionary vanguard.Pearson Edexcel
Ideology and religion: The belief in Manifest Destiny, which convinced many white Americans that it was their God-given right and duty to settle the entire continent.Pearson Edexcel
Ideology versus expertise: Political ideology was prioritised over practical farming methods, and skilled technicians and managers were purged as bourgeois experts, leaving factories…Pearson Edexcel
Ideology vs pragmatism: The Gang of Four championed continuous revolution and opposed Deng's pragmatic reforms, while Deng focused on economic pragmatism over ideological purity.Pearson Edexcel
Illusion of stability: Recovery remained dangerously reliant on short-term American loans, so the economic stability was precarious.Pearson Edexcel
Impact of colonial warfare: The conflict forced nations like the Iroquois Confederacy to choose sides, fracturing long-standing tribal alliances and causing brutal internal conflicts.Pearson Edexcel
Impact of disease: The Black Death sparked xenophobia, leading to scapegoating and increased tensions between migrants and the native English population.Pearson Edexcel
Impact of tactics on the course and outcome of the war: US forces unable to pin down an enemy, stretched supply lines, and political damage to the US cause.OCR
Impact of the Depression: The Depression had an uneven impact on different groups in Germany.OCR
Impact of the Norman Conquest: Norman lords replaced Anglo-Saxon landholders, a new ruling elite and French-speaking culture arrived, castles were built and the Church was reorganised.OCR
Impact of war on civilians: The growing impact of war on civilians included Allied bombing of cities.OCR
Impact of war on everyday life: Conscription, rationing, bombing of civilians, evacuation, and the changed work of women in munitions and auxiliary services.OCR
Impact on church fabric and the clergy: Images, shrines and altars were removed from churches, and the clergy faced new expectations, including the end of compulsory clerical celibacy under Edward.OCR
Impact on civilian populations: Where armies fought or were stationed, populations faced requisitioning of food and goods, damage to crops and property, disruption of trade and, at worst,…OCR
Impact on Indigenous peoples: Railroads, the cattle industry and gold prospecting severely disrupted the traditional ways of life of Indigenous peoples on the Plains.Pearson Edexcel
Impact on intellectuals and students: Intellectuals faced persecution, while students were mobilised and then sent to the countryside.OCR
Impact on monasteries and settlements: Destruction of monasteries and settlements, seizure of loot and tribute, and disruption of trade and agriculture.OCR
Impact on public services and communities: Immigrants staffed the new National Health Service, public transport and textile mills, and built churches, temples, mosques and shops.OCR
Impact on superpower and regional relations: Détente between the superpowers continued alongside the collapse of a US-backed state, Congress limited further US military action, and regional neighbours in…OCR
Imperial administration and control: Spain developed a structured imperial policy to control the Caribbean, regulating exploration through royal licenses and extending Spanish authority via royal…Pearson Edexcel
Imperial administration and governance: Cortés served as Governor and Captain-General of New Spain from 1523, appointed by and ultimately accountable to the Spanish Crown.Pearson Edexcel
Imperial ambition: Establishing an early English presence in North America, shown by Drake claiming a region of North America as Nova Albion.Pearson Edexcel
Imperial claims and authority: Balboa waded into the water and formally claimed the ocean, and all adjoining lands, for the Spanish Crown.Pearson Edexcel
Imperial connections: Migrants from the British Empire, such as lascars and ayahs, established communities in major port cities, reflecting Britain's changing global and imperial…Pearson Edexcel
Imperial dominance: The campaign secured British dominance in North America and effectively ended French control of Canada.Pearson Edexcel
Imperial expansion: Santo Domingo acted as a crucial base for further exploration, the enforcement of Spanish law and the initial implementation of the encomienda system,…Pearson Edexcel
Imperial rivalry: Hostility between British colonists and the French during King George's War, highlighted by the colonists' capture of the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745.Pearson Edexcel
Imperialism and conquest: The brutal Spanish conquest and collapse of Indigenous societies that the discovery of gold and differing relations with the Tainos and Caribs set a precedent…Pearson Edexcel
Imperialism and global trade: The growth of the British Empire expanded global trade networks, resulting in the arrival of imperial subjects like lascars.Pearson Edexcel
Imprisonment and captivity: Elizabeth imprisoned Mary and kept her in captivity without formally condemning her, transforming her from a fellow monarch seeking refuge into a captive…Pearson Edexcel
Increased state power: The Defence of the Realm Act 1914, government control of railways, mines and food supply, and wartime emergency legislation after 1939.OCR
Indentures: Contracts by which captains were contracted to provide specific numbers of men, marking a shift towards paid troops.Pearson Edexcel
Indian Appropriations Act (1851): The legal mechanism that funded and established reservations for Plains Indians, restricting their nomadic lifestyle.Pearson Edexcel
Indigenous alliances: Cortés forged a crucial alliance with the Tlaxcalans, who provided thousands of warriors to supplement his small Spanish force.Pearson Edexcel
Indigenous conflict: Magellan was killed at the Battle of Mactan by forces led by the local chieftain Lapulapu.Pearson Edexcel
Indigenous impact: The social impact was the exploitation of indigenous populations through early forced labour systems like the encomienda and yanaconas.Pearson Edexcel
Indigenous relations: Initial cooperation with the local Native Americans turned to hostility as English demands increased, culminating in violence and the death of the local…Pearson Edexcel
Indigenous resistance: The revolt of the Incas led by Manco Inca culminated in the siege of Cuzco, where massive Inca forces trapped the Spanish for months.Pearson Edexcel
Indoctrination: The process of shaping young people into loyal, obedient followers of Hitler who would secure the future of the Reich.Pearson Edexcel
Industrial and economic change: A change in local industry that drew or displaced workers, as a significant event in the area's migration history.OCR
Industrial management: The reinstatement of technical experts and managers, who had been sidelined during Mao's campaigns, to authority so that factories were run efficiently rather…Pearson Edexcel
Industrialisation: The process that enabled the mass production of weapons, ensuring standardised parts and rapid supply, and that brought steam-powered transport.Pearson Edexcel
Industrialisation and urbanisation: The Industrial Revolution and urbanisation shifted the population from rural areas to booming industrial cities.Pearson Edexcel
Industrialisation as a pull factor: Created demand for labour in English mills, mines, docks and construction, drawing migrants into industrial towns and cities.OCR
INF Treaty: The landmark Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, resulting from the Washington Summit, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear missiles.Pearson Edexcel
Infection and disease: Severe infections such as gas gangrene, caused when bacteria-laden uniform fragments were driven into wounds.Pearson Edexcel
Inkatha, 'civil war' and impact on Black communities: The growth of Inkatha under Buthelezi contributed to violent 'civil war' that harmed Black communities.OCR
Institutional care: Care provided in hospitals, which were disrupted by the Dissolution of the Monasteries and later re-founded by town councils.Pearson Edexcel
Institutional control: All judges were compelled to join the National Socialist League for the Maintenance of the Law, and those with conflicting political views were dismissed.Pearson Edexcel
Institutional cooperation: Problems were caused by the need for cooperation between the Metropolitan Police, the City of London Police and Scotland Yard.Pearson Edexcel
Institutional specialisation: Increasing specialisation within the police force, which saw the creation of dedicated units like the Fraud Squad and the Dog Section.Pearson Edexcel
Interaction between housing, welfare and health: Poor housing worsened health, and welfare bodies responded to that need.OCR
Interdict: A papal decree imposed in 1208 that suspended all public church services in England.Pearson Edexcel
International agreements and their limits: The Dawes Plan 1924, Locarno 1925, Kellogg-Briand 1928 and Young Plan 1929 eased tensions, but their limits showed when disarmament stalled.OCR
International agreements of the 1920s: The Dawes Plan 1924 rescheduled German reparations, Locarno 1925 improved relations, Kellogg-Briand 1928 renounced war and the Young Plan 1929 further revised…OCR
International diplomacy: The Helsinki Accords broadened détente by securing agreements across three 'baskets': European borders, international cooperation, and human rights.Pearson Edexcel
International finance: Substantial American loans and investment funded infrastructure and industrial growth, though recovery remained dangerously reliant on short-term American…Pearson Edexcel
International relations: The decisive defeat of John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214 shattered his hopes of recovering his continental empire.Pearson Edexcel
Internationalism in the 1920s: Approaches including the League of Nations settling some disputes and agreements such as the Dawes Plan 1924, Locarno 1925, Kellogg-Briand 1928 and Young Plan…OCR
Intimidation: A brutal campaign in which property and crops were destroyed while marching in a wide arc around London to cut off the city's supply routes.Pearson Edexcel
Intolerable Acts: The name colonists gave to the Coercive Acts passed by Parliament in 1774 as punitive measures in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party.Pearson Edexcel
invasion of Prince Louis: The barons invited Louis of France to take the English throne, and he invaded in May 1216, landing in Kent with a large army.Pearson Edexcel
Inventories: Lists of possessions that show furnishings, wealth and how rooms were used.OCR
Investigative techniques: Developments in detective investigation included the use of sketches, photographs and interviews.Pearson Edexcel
Investiture Controversy: A major conflict between the Papacy and secular rulers (especially the Holy Roman Emperor) over who had the authority to appoint (invest) church officials.OCR
Invisible unemployment: The manipulation of official statistics by excluding groups such as women, Jewish people and opponents in concentration camps from the unemployment figures.Pearson Edexcel
IRA campaigns and security responses: Campaigns from 1969 to 1994 involving mainland bombing and heightened security measures in Britain and Northern Ireland, with a political response leading…OCR
Iraq War 2003 and public opposition: A conflict involving British forces that provoked public opposition and controversy over intelligence.OCR
Ireland 1688–1691 and its settlement: Military campaigns in Ireland between 1688 and 1691, followed by a settlement that confirmed Protestant control there.OCR
Irish and Scottish migration to England: Irish migrants fleeing famine and poverty and Scottish migrants seeking work settled in industrial cities and formed communities that shaped local politics.OCR
Isolationism: The foreign policy of avoiding political or military entanglements with other nations, particularly in Europe, following WWI.Eduqas
Israel-Jordan peace treaty: The 1994 treaty that normalised relations and settled border disputes between the two nations, facilitated by the momentum of the Oslo Accords.Pearson Edexcel
Israeli Defence Forces: Created in 1948 by merging paramilitary groups like the Haganah into a single army to ensure military unity.Pearson Edexcel

J

Jacobite Rebellion 1715: A challenge to the Hanoverian succession.OCR
Jagir: A temporary grant of the right to collect revenue from a piece of land.OCR
Jewish demands: These focused on creating an independent Jewish state and lifting British restrictions on Jewish immigration, particularly for Holocaust survivors.Pearson Edexcel
Jewish refugees: Arrived in the 1930s and met mixed attitudes in Britain, showing both sympathy and hostility.OCR
Jiang Qing: Mao's wife, who became the cultural tsar of China and spearheaded the imposition of revolutionary art and culture.Pearson Edexcel
Jim Crow laws: A feature of the position of African Americans in US society, listed alongside access to education, voting rights and lack of equality in employment.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Jizya: A poll tax levied on non-Muslim subjects in an Islamic state.OCR
John's character: Complex; he was an able administrator but also suspicious, cruel, and prone to unpredictable mood swings.Pearson Edexcel
Journey and navigation: Richard's perilous return route from the Holy Land, which could not safely go by sea through the Mediterranean due to hostile forces and bad weather.Pearson Edexcel
Judging reliability and usefulness of sources: A strong answer identifies the type of evidence, states what it can show about the castle's location, and recognises its limits.OCR
July Days: A spontaneous armed uprising in Petrograd that the Bolsheviks reluctantly supported, after which the Provisional Government blamed the Bolsheviks and arrested…Pearson Edexcel
June Offensive: A disastrous continuation of the First World War that resulted in catastrophic losses and destroyed the government's credibility.Pearson Edexcel
Justice and punishment: The severe penalties inflicted on the leaders: Waltheof's execution, Roger's life imprisonment and Ralph's exile.Pearson Edexcel
Justice and the legal system: A flawed judicial process in which coerced confessions and unreliable witnesses were used to secure convictions during the trials.Pearson Edexcel
Justices of the Peace (JPs): Officials who judged minor crimes at Petty Sessions.Pearson Edexcel
justiciar: An appointed official who governed England during Richard's absence, notably William Longchamp and later Hubert Walter.Pearson Edexcel

K

Kapp Putsch: A right-wing challenge in March 1920, when Wolfgang Kapp led the Freikorps in seizing Berlin after being ordered to disband.Pearson Edexcel
Kerensky: A member of both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, and later Prime Minister, who attempted to bridge the divide between them.Pearson Edexcel
Kinder, Küche, Kirche: A slogan summarising the Nazi view that a woman's primary duty was to be a mother and raise a large number of racially pure Aryan children.Pearson Edexcel
King–thegn relations: Reciprocal: the king rewarded loyalty with land and office, while thegns owed service and counsel, and a weak king risked losing their support.OCR
Knight service: The obligation to provide equipped knights for a set period, usually 40 days annually, in exchange for land.Pearson Edexcel
Kronstadt Mutiny: A rebellion by sailors at the Kronstadt naval base, previously loyal supporters of the revolution, demanding free elections and an end to dictatorship.Pearson Edexcel
Kulaks: A wealthy peasant class fostered by the NEP which contradicted communist principles and was incompatible with socialism.Pearson Edexcel

L

Labour and casual dock work: Work that was casual and often dangerous, so communities clustered where hiring happened.OCR
Labour discipline and state control: Working conditions in factories were gruelling, featuring strict discipline, internal passports, and severe punishments for absenteeism.Pearson Edexcel
Labour service: The agricultural work performed by peasants on the lord's demesne in return for their own small plots.Pearson Edexcel
Laissez-faire: A policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering.Eduqas, OCR
Land and wealth: The family's vast landholdings and earldoms gave them wealth that rivalled or exceeded the king's.Pearson Edexcel
Land ownership: Land could not be bought, sold, or owned by individuals, which clashed with white settler concepts of property.Pearson Edexcel
Land reforms: Changes the Provisional Government delayed, alienating the peasantry and leading to peasant uprisings and loss of rural support.Pearson Edexcel
Landlordism: The traditional rural power structure that the Chinese Communist Party attacked in order to fulfil ideological promises of equality and secure peasant loyalty.Pearson Edexcel
Laogai: A system of penal colonies and prison camps where inmates were subjected to brutal conditions, starvation and forced labour in mines, farms and factories.Pearson Edexcel
Lascar and other Asian merchant seamen: Groups arriving from the Indian subcontinent, often through Company shipping and port employment.OCR
Lascars: Sailors or militiamen from the Indian subcontinent or other parts of Asia, employed on European ships from the 17th century onwards.OCR
Latin: The language used for written administration and the Church.Pearson Edexcel
Law and justice: Magna Carta prevented arbitrary imprisonment under Clause 39 and established a council of 25 barons to monitor the King's compliance.Pearson Edexcel
Law and legislation: Cromwell used the Reformation Parliament to pass complex legislation that enacted the Break with Rome, such as the Act of Supremacy.Pearson Edexcel
Law and morality: The work of church courts in handling moral offences, marriage disputes and the proving of wills.Pearson Edexcel
Law and order: The system of justice needed as rapid expansion of Western settlements created severe problems, with early mining towns and cow towns often relying on…Pearson Edexcel
Law for the Encouragement of Marriage: A 1933 law that provided loans to young couples to promote marriage and family, with the loans partially forgiven with each child born.Pearson Edexcel
Law of Return: A 1950 law granting every Jew the right to immigrate to Israel, leading to a massive influx that doubled the Jewish population within three years.Pearson Edexcel
Law, order, and justice: A king's primary duties included protecting his people from foreign invasion, maintaining law and order, and defending the Church.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership: The skills shown by Harold and William, including William securing papal backing, organising a complex logistical crossing and maintaining morale during the…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and administration: As governor of the Indies, Columbus proved an ineffective administrator, and Santo Domingo served as the administrative and military capital of the Spanish…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and authority: Hitler's absolute control, reasserted at the 1926 Bamberg Conference by marginalising the socialist-leaning northern faction led by Gregor Strasser.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and captivity: Montezuma II's initial decision to welcome the Spanish into Tenochtitlan enabled Cortés to take the Emperor hostage and rule through him.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and character: William I's traits as a formidable, ruthless and deeply religious leader, marked by an unyielding demand for loyalty and a willingness to use extreme brutality.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and civil rights organisations: Martin Luther King led non-violent civil rights campaigns, while SNCC, SCLC and the NAACP organised and supported civil rights campaigns.OCR
Leadership and command: Henry V’s leadership was pivotal: he chose a strong defensive position between two woods, inspired his troops, and made the ruthless tactical decision to…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and morale: The continued presence of the Royal Family and government ministers in the capital was a deliberate strategy to boost public morale and demonstrate solidarity…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and organisation: Brigham Young's highly organised movement of the Mormons, using advance parties, way stations and disciplined groups, ensuring the survival of thousands of…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and personality: Stalin's rivals underestimated him because he seemed a dull administrator, while Trotsky was a brilliant orator but arrogant and feared as a potential dictator.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and planning: The settlers included too many soldiers and gentlemen, lacking the necessary agricultural skills to survive, and relied heavily on the local Native Americans…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and power: Richard was a renowned warrior who sought military glory and the chance to cement his legacy as a great Christian king.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership and strategy: Aske provided disciplined leadership and drafted the Pontefract Articles, while Norfolk, vastly outnumbered, negotiated a truce with false promises of a free…Pearson Edexcel
Leadership of Martin Luther King Jr.: He led pivotal peace marches in Birmingham and Washington, D.C., and delivered the iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech articulating a vision of racial equality.Pearson Edexcel
Leadership succession: Hua Guofeng initially succeeded Mao before Deng consolidated power later, and the Gang of Four were swiftly arrested in October 1976 by Hua Guofeng.Pearson Edexcel
League of German Maidens: An organisation for girls that prepared them for motherhood and domestic duties, emphasising physical fitness to bear healthy children and teaching domestic…Pearson Edexcel
Lebensraum: Literally 'living space'.OCR
Legal challenges: The NAACP's strategy of using the courts to challenge the 'separate but equal' precedent, with the Brown v.Pearson Edexcel
Legal discrimination: The marginalising of Jewish people through legislation such as the Nuremberg Laws, which stripped them of citizenship and banned intermarriage.Pearson Edexcel
Legal status and rights: The legal status of 'alien' formalised migrants' outsider position, subjecting them to specific taxes and restrictions.Pearson Edexcel
Legal victories: Successes achieved through the courts, such as the Supreme Court ruling in Browder v.Pearson Edexcel
Legislative pressure: The marches placed immense pressure on the federal government to pass comprehensive civil rights legislation.Pearson Edexcel
Legislative reform: The 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting Rights Act and 1968 Fair Housing Act dismantled de jure segregation and secured political participation.Pearson Edexcel
Legitimacy and royal authority: The succession problem required urgent political manoeuvring by John's loyalists to secure Henry's coronation and legitimize his reign.Pearson Edexcel
Legitimacy and succession: The note links Mary's strong claim as Henry VII's great-granddaughter to the unresolved succession, since Elizabeth remained unmarried and childless.Pearson Edexcel
Letters of denization: Grants from authorities allowing skilled migrants, such as Flemish weavers, to legally reside and work.Pearson Edexcel
Levellers: A new political group that pressed for wider political rights and religious toleration, which Parliament reacted to with suspicion.OCR
Leviticus: The biblical text Henry cited to argue his marriage was cursed because Catherine was his brother Arthur's widow.Pearson Edexcel
Liberty and equality: Revolutionary ideals proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence, which stated that 'all men are created equal', yet sat alongside the continuation of the…Pearson Edexcel
lifestyle factors: Choices such as smoking, diet, alcohol and lack of exercise that contribute to conditions like lung cancer and heart disease.Pearson Edexcel
Limitation: A limit of these records, such as gaps in dates or a single household's perspective.OCR
Linear formations: A tactic adopted by infantry to maximise firepower and compensate for slow reload times, alongside volley fire.Pearson Edexcel
Link between occupation and living conditions: Occupation was connected to housing, pay and community life, so work shaped immigrants' living conditions and community life.OCR
Little Red Book: Mandatory reading central to the cult of Mao, used as a specific example when discussing both propaganda and the cult of Mao.Pearson Edexcel
Living conditions and public health: Includes sanitation, disease, water supply and space per family.OCR
Living standards: Consumer goods were scarce and of poor quality, and the burden of repaying Soviet loans exacerbated domestic shortages and rural poverty.Pearson Edexcel
Local administration: A sophisticated system dividing land into shires and hundreds, managed by shire reeves who collected taxes and enforced royal decrees.Pearson Edexcel
Local depots: Establishments created by the Localisation of the Forces Act (1872) where recruits received standardised basic training before joining regiments.Pearson Edexcel
Local government: Justices of the Peace were crucial unpaid officials who enforced the law, collected taxes, and maintained order at the local level.Pearson Edexcel
Local government response: The 1972 action by Leicester City Council, which placed adverts in Ugandan newspapers warning Asian refugees not to migrate there due to limited resources.Pearson Edexcel
Local migration history: A local migration event studied by noting which forms of remembrance exist for it, who created them and what version of the event they emphasise.OCR
Local responses to migration: A hostile incident such as a riot, which is one of the significant events in the migration history of the area.OCR
Logistics and supply: The movement of armies and supplies, revolutionised by steam-powered transport, with steamships for strategic troop movement and railways improving local…Pearson Edexcel
Logistics and transport: The transport and communications infrastructure, whose destruction by the war severely hampered the evacuation of the wounded.Pearson Edexcel
Lollards, Luther and critics: The Lollards spread criticisms of church wealth and practices, Luther's ideas from Germany challenged papal authority and key doctrines, and critics attacked…OCR
Long drives: Arduous, months-long journeys in which cowboys moved cattle from Texas to northern railheads like Abilene, facing harsh weather and stampedes.Pearson Edexcel
Long-standing diversity before 1945: The recognition that port communities were already diverse before 1945 rather than only after the Second World War.OCR
Loss of empire: Without the vital stronghold the route to Rouen was left undefended, and Rouen surrendered in June 1204, completing the French conquest of Normandy.Pearson Edexcel
Loss of the American colonies: After 1783 this redirected trade and settlement and is linked to the growth of African communities in Britain.OCR
Lowland versus hilltop castle settings: A castle on low-lying inland ground beside water rather than on a steep hilltop or a high coastal headland.OCR
Loyalists: Colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown and actively supported it during the American War of Independence.Pearson Edexcel
Loyalty, volunteer corps and repression: Loyal addresses and volunteer corps grew alongside the suspension of habeas corpus and the Combination Acts.OCR
Lysenkoism: A pseudoscientific agricultural theory promoted by Soviet agronomist Trofim Lysenko, whose methods such as deep ploughing and close planting were made…Pearson Edexcel

M

Macuahuitl: The primary Aztec weapon — a wooden club edged with sharp obsidian blades.OCR
Magic bullets: Chemical drugs, starting with Ehrlich's Salvarsan 606, that target specific bacteria.Pearson Edexcel
Magna Carta: A charter in 1215 that limited royal power and was reissued afterwards, following John's heavy taxation and quarrels with the Church and barons.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable.OCR
Manorial and honorial justice: Lords or their stewards held courts there, settling disputes, enforcing obligations and issuing fines, making the castle a centre of justice.OCR
Mansabdari System: The administrative and military system of the Mughal Empire in which nobles (Mansabdars) were assigned a rank (*zat*) and a quota of cavalry (*sawar*) to…OCR
Mao Zedong's leadership and authority: Mao bypassed cautious party members and ordered a rapid acceleration into higher-level Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives.Pearson Edexcel
Maps as evidence of location and change: Maps are especially useful evidence: comparing maps across time reveals change in the landscape around the site.OCR
Marcher earldoms: Earldoms created on the volatile borderlands with Wales, namely Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford, to establish control there.Pearson Edexcel
Maritime trade: Trade with Britain and with the West Indies, exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods.Pearson Edexcel
Market gardening: An advanced agricultural technique brought by migrants that significantly increased crop yields.Pearson Edexcel
Markets and fairs: Events through which towns played a crucial role in the economy, facilitating the exchange of local produce and imported luxury goods.Pearson Edexcel
Marriage and diplomacy: Henry married Jane Seymour in 1536 primarily to secure a legitimate male heir, following the failures of his previous marriages.Pearson Edexcel
Marriage and succession: The marriage Cromwell arranged between Henry VIII and Anne of Cleves to secure a Protestant alliance, which failed and damaged Cromwell's relationship with…Pearson Edexcel
Marshall Plan: The economic extension of containment, offering billions of dollars in aid to rebuild war-torn European economies in the belief that prosperous nations would…OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Mass mobilisation: Method used by Mao, alongside class warfare, to achieve political goals such as destroying the independent bourgeoisie and establishing strict CCP dominance…Pearson Edexcel
Mass party membership: The expansion of the CCP's ranks, encouraged to consolidate power, so that loyal cadres were present in every village and factory, embedding the party into…Pearson Edexcel
Mass protest and boycott: The Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1956 used mass protest to challenge segregation on public transport.OCR
Mass rallies: The eight mass rallies in Tiananmen Square in 1966 saw millions of ecstatic students reviewed by Mao, officially launching the Red Guards.Pearson Edexcel
Mass vaccinations: Campaigns such as the national diphtheria campaign in 1942 and polio in the 1950s, which drastically reduced childhood mortality.Pearson Edexcel
McCarthyism and its support and opposition: A distinct phenomenon with its own supporters and opponents, whose nature, support for and opposition to it must be explained.OCR
Mechanisation: The provision of mechanised equipment like tractors through Machine Tractor Stations (MTS).Pearson Edexcel
Media and communication: The growth of newspaper reporting and photography profoundly shifted popular attitudes towards war.Pearson Edexcel
Media and national awareness: The campaign gained tragic national attention with the Mississippi murders, and the brutality exposed highlighted the urgent need for federal voting rights…Pearson Edexcel
Media and propaganda: Extensive television coverage of atrocities fuelled the anti-war movement and shifted public opinion.Pearson Edexcel
Media and Protest: The use of a massive global platform, as at the 1968 Mexico Olympics, to bring international attention to African American struggles and demonstrate the…Pearson Edexcel
Media and public opinion: Television coverage, especially of the US Embassy attack, was crucial in changing American public perception and shifting opinion against the war.Pearson Edexcel
Media and public perception: Newspapers and television shaped public perception, sometimes sensationalising racial conflict while also highlighting the injustices faced by migrants.Pearson Edexcel
Media campaigns and American values: A response by the US government that highlighted American values and institutions.OCR
Media impact: Televised images of racial hatred shocked the world and generated sympathy, making Little Rock a turning point in public awareness.Pearson Edexcel
Media influence: Shocking media coverage of the Anniston bomb and subsequent beatings, which compelled Attorney General Robert Kennedy to enforce desegregation on interstate…Pearson Edexcel
Media influence and public opinion: Coverage of Bull Connor's water hoses and attack dogs in Birmingham generated global outrage and increased white support for civil rights.Pearson Edexcel
Media representation: How events like the 1958 riots were portrayed to the wider public through national newspapers and television reports.Pearson Edexcel
Medical education: In England, Vesalius's work heavily influenced medical training, encouraging physicians to perform their own dissections.Pearson Edexcel
Medical hierarchy: Physicians were expensive and accessible only to the wealthy, making home care the most common approach.Pearson Edexcel
Medical monitors: Devices like ECGs for heart activity allow continuous tracking of a patient's vital signs.Pearson Edexcel
Medical organisation: The RAMC organised medical care and nurses treated casualties, with nurses primarily working in base hospitals and later at casualty clearing stations rather…Pearson Edexcel
Medieval beliefs: The deeply religious convictions of the population, who feared eternal damnation without access to the sacraments.Pearson Edexcel
Metropolitan Police Act: The 1829 Act that created London's first professional, uniformed police.Pearson Edexcel
Metropolitan Police Force: Centralised, uniformed and professional police force created in 1829, aimed at preventing crime rather than just reacting to it.Pearson Edexcel
Miasma: An explanation of the cause of disease that remained popular in Britain and continued alongside resistance to Germ Theory.Pearson Edexcel
Miasma theory: Explained disease as being caused by bad air filled with harmful smells from decaying matter, prompting early public health efforts.Pearson Edexcel
Migrant involvement in Abolition and Chartism: Migrants and their descendants took part in the Abolition movement and in Chartism, the campaign for political reform set out in the People's Charter.OCR
Migration: The movement of people to the American West, driven by a combination of economic, practical, and ideological factors.Pearson Edexcel
Migration and community: Changing patterns of migration included the settlement of migrants from Ireland and Eastern Europe, and an increase in Jewish migration during the 1880s.Pearson Edexcel
Migration and displacement: The movement of around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs who fled or were expelled during the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War, creating a massive refugee crisis.Pearson Edexcel
Migration and Empire: The government's encouragement of migration from the British Empire and Commonwealth, notably the Caribbean, to meet the demand for labour.Pearson Edexcel
Migration and resettlement: The post-war relocation of thousands of 'Black Loyalists' to British territories such as Nova Scotia after the British defeat.Pearson Edexcel
Migration and settlement: Immigrants from Europe, including Scots-Irish and German settlers, often pushed westward into the backcountry, seeking affordable land.Pearson Edexcel
Military coercion: The Christmas Bombings, Operation Linebacker II, were launched to force Hanoi back to the negotiating table after the October 1972 breakdown.Pearson Edexcel
Military commitment: Scuttling the ships demonstrated Cortés's absolute commitment and leadership style.Pearson Edexcel
Military failure: John's complex night-time rescue mission using land and river forces failed because of poor timing and poor coordination.Pearson Edexcel
Military intervention: Sending military assistance to the Dutch Protestant rebels, as Elizabeth did under the Treaty of Nonsuch, effectively declaring war on Spain.Pearson Edexcel
Military leadership and accountability: The question of responsibility raised by the massacre, with some viewing Calley as a scapegoat for higher-level military failures.Pearson Edexcel
Military organisation: The army was a diverse force of highly trained knights, men-at-arms, infantry and non-combatants such as priests and camp followers, its core being the…Pearson Edexcel
Military reprisals: Severe operations conducted by Israel against Egyptian positions in response to cross-border attacks, escalating the cycle of violence.Pearson Edexcel
Military strategy: Trotsky used the Military Revolutionary Committee to control key infrastructure like bridges and telegraph offices, allowing the storming of the Winter Palace…Pearson Edexcel
Military strategy and tactics: US tactics failed against the Vietcong's guerrilla warfare, and massive aerial bombardment campaigns failed to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail or break enemy…Pearson Edexcel
Military tactics: The methods used in battle, with the English relying solely on the static shield wall and William's flexible tactics, notably the feigned retreat, dismantling…Pearson Edexcel
Military tactics and strategy: At the Siege of Acre in 1191, Richard's tactical skill and use of siege engines broke the stalemate, forcing the city's surrender.Pearson Edexcel
Military vs Political Victory: A distinction between the military failure for the communists and their massive psychological and political victory.Pearson Edexcel
Military vulnerability: The severe weakening of the Red Army caused by the purge of the armed forces, leaving the Soviet Union vulnerable to the Nazi invasion in 1941.Pearson Edexcel
Ministry of Propaganda: Body directed by Joseph Goebbels to control German attitudes through censorship and media manipulation.Pearson Edexcel
Minority civil rights campaigns: Impact of civil rights campaigns for Native Americans and Chicanos.OCR
Mobilisation and propaganda: The mobilisation of the US people for the war effort included propaganda campaigns and war production, which created jobs and helped end the Depression.OCR
Modernisation: A primary reason for the plan, being the need to modernise rapidly to defend against capitalist threats and establish self-sufficiency.Pearson Edexcel
Monarchical prestige and power: The standing and authority of the monarch, which the wars with Spain affected.OCR
Monarchy and power: Henry VIII possessed strengths as monarch, including a full treasury and a stable, united kingdom inherited from his father, but his weaknesses included a…Pearson Edexcel
Monarchy and succession: When King John died in October 1216, England faced a severe succession crisis because the legitimate heir, Henry III, was only nine years old.Pearson Edexcel
Monopoly licenses: Licenses sold by the Spanish Crown that generated significant revenue and enriched merchants in Seville.Pearson Edexcel
Montgomery Improvement Association: A newly formed organisation, led by Martin Luther King Jr., which extended the one-day boycott for 381 days.Pearson Edexcel
moral resistance: Opposition to totalitarianism shown by both the Protestant and Catholic examples.Pearson Edexcel
Morale and discipline: US morale plummeted, leading to widespread drug abuse and 'fragging', which was the attacking of officers.Pearson Edexcel
Mother's Cross: An award that rewarded women for having large families.Pearson Edexcel
Motivation for conquest: Contact confirmed rumours of vast riches, motivating Pizarro to return to Spain to secure royal permission for conquest.Pearson Edexcel
Motte: A raised earth mound on which the keep, a wooden tower for defence, stood.Pearson Edexcel
Motte and bailey castle: A castle built quickly from earth and timber, with a raised earth mound, a wooden tower, an enclosed courtyard and a wooden fence.Pearson Edexcel
Motte and bailey layouts: A raised mound with an enclosed courtyard, suited to quick defence.OCR
Multicultural community: A lived pattern of coexistence, mixing and sometimes friction, not simply a count of nationalities.OCR
Murder of Prince Arthur: Arthur's subsequent disappearance and suspected murder by John in 1203 severely damaged John's reputation, alienating his French supporters.Pearson Edexcel
Murdrum fine: This redefined the murder of a Norman as a crime for which the entire local community was heavily fined, reinforcing Norman dominance.Pearson Edexcel
Muskets: New firearms, particularly matchlock and later flintlock, that required less training than longbows and allowed armies to rapidly field large numbers of…Pearson Edexcel
Mutiny and authority: Cortés departed for Mexico in 1519 in direct defiance of Governor Velázquez's orders, making the expedition an act of mutiny.Pearson Edexcel
Mutual Aid Teams (MATs): Small groups of up to ten peasant households who shared tools, draft animals and labour while retaining private ownership of their land.Pearson Edexcel
Mutual-aid and friendly societies: Offered practical help, a sense of belonging and a way to preserve language and customs.OCR
Mutually exclusive demands: These demands made a negotiated settlement impossible, as fulfilling one side's objectives inherently violated the other's.Pearson Edexcel

N

Napalm: An incendiary gel that caused devastating burns.Pearson Edexcel
National context: The broader context of Notting Hill that historians understand by utilising national sources reflecting country-wide attitudes.Pearson Edexcel
National Insurance: A system introduced by the 1911 National Insurance Act in which workers, employers, and the state each contributed to a fund that provided sick pay and…OCR
National Labour Service (RAD): A labour service that became compulsory for young men in 1935, providing cheap labour and preparing men for military discipline.Pearson Edexcel
National prestige: The standing of England, which was significantly boosted because Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world.Pearson Edexcel
National security: Stalin feared foreign invasion, declaring that Russia was fifty to a hundred years behind advanced countries and had to close the gap in ten years to survive…Pearson Edexcel
National Service: Peacetime compulsory military service that continued post-1945 until 1960, requiring peacetime military service.Pearson Edexcel
nationalisation: Castro's takeover of US-owned businesses, which led the USA to refuse to recognise his government and ban the import of Cuban sugar.Pearson Edexcel
Nationalisation and public services: Along with the welfare state, these expanded what government did and how far it reached into people's lives from 1945 to c.1980.OCR
Nationalisation of industry: A key feature of War Communism, alongside the abolition of private trade and strict labour discipline.Pearson Edexcel
Native Americans: Crucial trading partners and the source of much of the fur, with whom the British sought to regulate interactions.Pearson Edexcel
Nativism: The policy or belief of protecting the interests of native-born inhabitants against those of immigrants, leading to restrictive quotas.Eduqas
NATO: A defensive military alliance formed by Western powers in 1949 in response to the perceived Soviet threat following the Berlin Blockade.Pearson Edexcel
Natural and artificial water defences: Water and marshy ground that defend a castle naturally, such as the brook, together with an artificial body of water created for the castle, the mere.OCR
Naturalisation: The legal process by which a foreign-born person acquires the nationality of a state, gaining rights such as the vote and the ability to hold office.OCR
Nature, origin, and purpose: Factors of a document that students must assess to determine how they affect its utility for a particular question.Pearson Edexcel
Naval power: The gains strengthened the Royal Navy and Britain's global empire.OCR
Naval technology and tactics: English galleons were faster, more manoeuvrable and equipped with long-range cannons, allowing them to fire without being boarded.Pearson Edexcel
Naval warfare and privateering: The use of sea forces and privateering, whose strategic importance in Elizabethan foreign policy the raid demonstrated through English naval superiority.Pearson Edexcel
Navigational challenges: The fleet navigated the treacherous Strait of Magellan and crossed the Pacific Ocean, suffering scurvy and starvation.Pearson Edexcel
Nazi weakness in the 1920s: Nazi policies in the 1920s gained little traction and the party was weak in 1928.OCR
Nepmen: Private traders who, along with peasants, welcomed the changes brought by the New Economic Policy.Pearson Edexcel
New Draperies: Lighter and more fashionable textiles introduced by Flemish weavers, revolutionising textile production.Pearson Edexcel
New Economic Policy: Introduced by Lenin in 1921 to rescue Russia's economy from the devastation of War Communism and the Kronstadt Mutiny.Pearson Edexcel
New Economic Policy (NEP): A policy allowing private farming that Stalin saw as a retreat to capitalism and that led to a grain procurement crisis by 1927.Pearson Edexcel
New Laws (1542): Laws passed by the Crown after Las Casas's campaigning, which aimed to abolish the encomienda system and protect indigenous people from enslavement.Pearson Edexcel
New Objectivity: An art movement in which artists such as Otto Dix and George Grosz painted harsh, critical depictions of German society and the brutal legacy of the First…Pearson Edexcel
NHS: Created in 1948, it drastically improved access to care, making treatment free at the point of use and removing financial barriers.Pearson Edexcel
Night of the Long Knives: In June 1934 Hitler orchestrated this purge, murdering Röhm, SA leaders and other political opponents to eliminate internal rivals and secure army backing.Pearson Edexcel
Nixon Doctrine: Policy announced in July 1969 stating that Asian allies would be responsible for their own military defence, while the US honoured existing treaty commitments…Pearson Edexcel
NKVD: Stalin's secret police, the primary instrument of state terror, responsible for surveillance, arrests, interrogations and executions.Pearson Edexcel
Nobility and the King: Harold became the king's right-hand man, or sub-regulus, and the strategic placement of his brothers ensured the Godwins dominated English politics and…Pearson Edexcel
Noche Triste: Literally 'Night of Sorrows' — the night of 30 June 1520 when the Spanish and their allies were driven out of Tenochtitlan by Aztec forces following Pedro de…OCR
Nomadism and mobility: Following migrating buffalo herds required a nomadic lifestyle, necessitating portable homes and the use of horses for hunting and transport.Pearson Edexcel
Nomenklatura: The Party elite, who enjoyed significant privileges including access to special shops, better housing and superior healthcare.Pearson Edexcel
Non-violent direct action: Peaceful marches, such as those in Birmingham and Washington, which demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach for the civil rights cause.Pearson Edexcel
Non-violent protest: A sustained form of protest in which the black community was united during the boycott.Pearson Edexcel
Norman aristocracy: The group whose power and wealth after the Conquest Odo exemplifies, as Earl of Kent and the second largest landholder in England.Pearson Edexcel
Norman conquest and control: After 1066 castles were a tool of conquest as well as defence, letting a Norman lord control the surrounding land and hold conquered territory.OCR
Norman French: The spoken language of the elite, which became the language of government, law and the aristocracy.Pearson Edexcel
Norman methods of control under William I: Castle building, the march to harry the north, and the submission at Berkhamsted and later at Ely.OCR
Normanisation: The process by which the Church was reformed and English bishops were replaced with Normans, centralising Church control under Canterbury and strengthening…Pearson Edexcel
November Criminals: A derogatory term used to brand the government and undermine the legitimacy of the Weimar government.Pearson Edexcel
Nuclear arms race and fear of war: The USA used atomic bombs in 1945 and the USSR tested its own device in 1949, raising the stakes of every confrontation.OCR
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: A 1968 agreement seeking to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to other countries, restricting the nuclear club.Pearson Edexcel
Nuremberg Rallies: Annual grand spectacles used to project an image of unity, order and overwhelming power.Pearson Edexcel
NVA: The highly motivated North Vietnamese Army, which the ARVN was ineffective against.Pearson Edexcel

O

OAPEC: The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, which initiated the embargo against countries supporting Israel.Pearson Edexcel
Oath of Succession: Required individuals to swear allegiance to the new line of succession and implicitly reject the Pope's authority.Pearson Edexcel
Oaths and loyalty: Norman sources claim Harold swore an oath on holy relics to support William's claim, an event William later used to justify his invasion.Pearson Edexcel
occupied territories: The West Bank and Gaza Strip, where Palestinians lived under Israeli military rule and faced land confiscations and poor living conditions.Pearson Edexcel
Official records and their limits: An official record can show legal rights and status, but it may say little about daily life inside the castle.OCR
Official vs personal narratives: Memoirs and photographs capture personal, everyday realities, offering a vital counter-narrative to official documents.Pearson Edexcel
Oil weapon: The use by Arab states of their economic resources, through an oil embargo, to achieve political goals.Pearson Edexcel
Oklahoma Land Rush: The 1893 rush in which thousands raced to claim 160-acre plots when the Cherokee Strip, previously Indian Territory, was opened to white settlement.Pearson Edexcel
One Child policy: A social change under Deng, alongside the role of women and education reform.OCR
One-party state: A system the Bolsheviks established by rapidly centralising power after the October Revolution.Pearson Edexcel
Open range: A system that came to an end after the winter of 1886–87, replaced by smaller plots of land fenced with barbed wire.Pearson Edexcel
Open range ranching: Ranching on the open range of the Plains, where cowboys became ranch hands focusing on line riding, branding and managing herds year-round.Pearson Edexcel
Open-ended question: A question framed to allow for analytical reasoning rather than a simple yes or no answer.Pearson Edexcel
Open-ended questions: Questions that allow for detailed investigation rather than simple yes or no answers.Pearson Edexcel
Operation Focus: A preemptive Israeli airstrike that destroyed the Egyptian air force on the ground.Pearson Edexcel
Operation Peace for Galilee: The name given to Israel's full-scale invasion of Lebanon in June 1982, launched after the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador in London.Pearson Edexcel
Operation Rolling Thunder: A sustained, massive aerial bombing campaign against North Vietnamese industrial targets, infrastructure and the Ho Chi Minh Trail, aiming to break enemy…Pearson Edexcel
Opposition and government response: Opposition included illegal organisations and resistance from police and state authorities, while government and official institutions, including Kennedy and…OCR
Opposition and resistance: Prominent opponents of Henry VIII's religious changes included Elizabeth Barton and Bishop John Fisher, whose resistance showed the severe consequences of…Pearson Edexcel
Opposition to autocracy: Desperation and anger towards the Tsarist regime united peasants and town workers, laying the groundwork for the impending revolution.Pearson Edexcel
Opposition, resistance and political activism: Enslaved people resisted and campaigners and writers argued against the trade, while coffee houses became meeting places for exchanging news and organising…OCR
Order Number 1: The measure through which the Petrograd Soviet controlled the army, limiting the Provisional Government's authority.Pearson Edexcel
Organisation: The SCLC provided a structured organisation to campaign for broader civil rights, such as voter registration, beyond Montgomery.Pearson Edexcel
Organised labour and political parties: The rise of mass trade unions and the Labour Party from the 1880s to 1914 and their effectiveness in pressing working people's interests.OCR
Orthodox communism: Strict communism restored by Gustáv Husák after Dubček's reforms were reversed.Pearson Edexcel
Oslo Accords: The 1993 agreement in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin officially recognised each other, brokered secretly in Norway.Pearson Edexcel
Oslo II: The 1995 agreement that expanded Palestinian self-government across parts of the West Bank, dividing it into Areas A, B, and C.Pearson Edexcel
Overseas trade and exploration: England's growing overseas trade, including the activities of traders, brought Africans to England.OCR
Overstocking: A practice in the early 1880s that depleted prairie grass and led to falling beef prices.Pearson Edexcel
owner's household: The household that workers such as cooks and kitchen staff fed and that other workers supported.OCR

P

Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Provided the legal and financial framework, granting massive tracts of land and government bonds to companies to build the route.Pearson Edexcel
Palatines: Protestant refugees from the Rhineland who arrived from the 1670s, with reasons for emigrating including poverty and war.OCR
Palestinian National Authority: The body established by the Oslo Accords, granting limited self-rule in Gaza and Jericho.Pearson Edexcel
Palisade: A wooden fence forming part of a castle's defences.Pearson Edexcel
Pan-Arabism: The ideology championed by Gamal Abdel Nasser advocating for the political unity of Arab nations.Pearson Edexcel
Papal authority: The power of the Pope, shown here through a severe papal strike on the whole country's religious services.Pearson Edexcel
Papal commission: What Wolsey sought from the Pope to rule on the annulment, rather than a papal dispensation.Pearson Edexcel
Papal power: Innocent III asserted papal supremacy over monarchs, and his intervention in the election crisis showed this power in action.Pearson Edexcel
Paris Peace Accords 1973: Agreement of January 1973 signed by the United States, North Vietnam, South Vietnam and the Viet Cong, after which US combat forces withdrew.OCR
Parish constable: An unpaid, part-time official nominated by the community to lead the hue and cry and keep the peace in later medieval England.Pearson Edexcel
Parliament: A body of nobles, clergy and eventually wider representatives that emerged gradually under Henry III and Edward I from meetings of nobles and clergy.OCR
Parliament and army power: The Rump Parliament governed after 1649 while Cromwell relied on the army for power, until he expelled the Rump in 1653.OCR
Parliament as a law-making body: Under Henry VIII its role was to legitimise the king's religious and political changes rather than to challenge him, passing the laws that enacted the…OCR
Parliament under William III and Anne: Under William III and Anne, Parliament met regularly and controlled finance.OCR
Parliament, government and the people: The relationship examined across c.1914–c.1980, including how far Parliament and the people controlled government.OCR
Parliamentary pressure under Elizabeth I: Parliament met more often and debated taxation, religion and the succession, and some MPs pressed the queen on issues such as her marriage and the execution…OCR
Parliamentary reform: Change to the electoral system through the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884, which redistributed seats and extended the vote.OCR
Party reorganisation: Extensive restructuring by Hitler, including a national network of Gauleiters to run regional branches and the creation of the SS as a loyal bodyguard.Pearson Edexcel
Passive resistance: The policy ordered by the German government in response to the French occupation, paying striking workers by printing more money.Pearson Edexcel
Pastor Niemöller: Helped establish the Confessing Church and was arrested in 1937, then imprisoned in a concentration camp from 1938.Pearson Edexcel
Patriotism: A sense of duty and moral obligation to back the government and the troops deployed overseas.Pearson Edexcel
Patronage: Used by Richard to reward loyal followers and secure the support of powerful barons.Pearson Edexcel
Patronage and reward: Granting land to loyal followers to secure their continued support, with grants conditional on loyalty and military service.Pearson Edexcel
Paxton Boys: An illegal vigilante group formed in Pennsylvania in response to ongoing frontier violence, which massacred peaceful Conestoga Indians and marched on…Pearson Edexcel
peace with honour: Nixon's aim of reducing American casualties and appeasing domestic anti-war sentiment while trying to ensure South Vietnam's survival.Pearson Edexcel
Penal reform: Prisons evolved, including the development of open prisons offering relaxed regimes to prepare inmates for release.Pearson Edexcel
People's Communes: The means by which Mao aimed to accelerate the transition to true communism.Pearson Edexcel
People's Receiver: Cheap radio mass-produced to broadcast Hitler's speeches directly into homes.Pearson Edexcel
Permanent Indian Frontier: The initial policy of separation that was breached as white migration increased and was quickly undermined by white migration along trails crossing Indian…Pearson Edexcel
Persecution: Severe treatment faced by Loyalists during the conflict, including property confiscation and violence from Patriot forces.Pearson Edexcel
Persecution and eugenics: Persecution of Jews and other groups, including Roma, Jehovah's Witnesses and homosexuals, together with eugenics policies and their purpose.OCR
Personal monarchy: Henry's style of government was personal and absolute, not constrained by a constitution or a permanent parliament.Pearson Edexcel
Personal rule: The period from 1629 to 1640 when Charles I governed without Parliament.OCR
phased withdrawal: The gradual withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam, which forced the South Vietnamese to take the lead in ground combat operations.Pearson Edexcel
Physical and ideological division: The Berlin Wall physically divided East and West Berlin, and it became a symbol of communist oppression for the West.Pearson Edexcel
Physical traces of migration in the built environment: Features such as housing types and street layouts shaped by incoming groups, explained as a consequence of migration rather than described in isolation.OCR
Pikemen: Infantry who provided essential defence against cavalry charges, working alongside musketeers who delivered volley fire.Pearson Edexcel
Pilgrimage of Grace: Resistance and protest in 1536–1537, alongside the Lincolnshire Rising.OCR
Piracy: Activities that severely impacted lucrative trade, disrupting shipping routes and causing significant financial losses.Pearson Edexcel
Place and locality: The specific site where an event happened, such as the street, district, dock, place of worship, workplace, street corner or public building, and the wider…OCR
Places of origin of migrant groups: The specific country or region from which a named migrant group came, which must be linked to a valid reason for migration.OCR
Places of worship and cultural buildings: Physical evidence such as mosques, gurdwaras or synagogues that migration has left in the built environment of an urban area.OCR
Plenary indulgence: A promise granting the forgiveness of all sins to participants who took a vow.Pearson Edexcel
PLO: A force whose infrastructure Israel aimed to destroy and whose forces it pushed back, and which was forced to evacuate Lebanon and relocate its headquarters…Pearson Edexcel
Plot of 1212: A conspiracy by a small group of powerful, deeply alienated barons to kill John or leave him to be captured by the Welsh.Pearson Edexcel
Plunder and pillage: The means by which armies sustained themselves, resulting in the burning of crops, theft of livestock and widespread violence against non-combatants.Pearson Edexcel
Poaching: A persistent crime against authority and property, exacerbated by the 1723 Black Act which made it a capital offence, highlighting tension between wealthy…Pearson Edexcel
Pogrom: A violent, organised massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews.OCR
Police recruits: The quality of police recruits was often variable; many were drawn from rural areas or the military, lacking experience with complex urban slums.Pearson Edexcel
Police relations and justice: Relentless police raids on the Mangrove Restaurant led activists to organise a protest in 1970, and the subsequent trial and acquittal of the 'Mangrove Nine'…Pearson Edexcel
policing by consent: Principle behind the Metropolitan Police in which the force operated with the agreement of the public.Pearson Edexcel
Policing in London: The work of the Metropolitan Police, which faced criticism for its handling of race relations and community tensions.Pearson Edexcel
Policy reversal: The introduction of pragmatic incentives, such as private plots and free markets in agriculture and financial bonuses in industry, while the state still…Pearson Edexcel
Politburo: A small inner cabinet of senior Bolsheviks including Lenin and Trotsky that became the supreme decision-making body, bypassing the larger Central Committee…Pearson Edexcel
Political administration: Senior churchmen like archbishops and bishops served as key royal advisors, chancellors, and justiciars, due to their literacy and administrative skills.Pearson Edexcel
Political centralisation: The process by which the Bolsheviks rapidly concentrated power after the October Revolution, with Lenin arguing that strict discipline and top-down control…Pearson Edexcel
Political conflict: The dispute was a political power struggle over who had the right to appoint the Archbishop of Canterbury, not a matter of religion or theology.Pearson Edexcel
Political consolidation: Extending Communist Party control over the countryside and eliminating the so-called 'kulak' class were political successes of collectivisation.Pearson Edexcel
Political control: Total control over the government of China established by the CCP, intertwining party and state structures to direct all aspects of life.Pearson Edexcel
political control and repression: The silencing of intellectual opposition and cementing of Mao's absolute control over the party and state, creating a climate of fear that stifled independent…Pearson Edexcel
Political enfranchisement: The Weimar Constitution granted women the right to vote and stand for election, female turnout was high, and many women served as Reichstag deputies.Pearson Edexcel
Political extremism and aggressive expansion: Desperate populations turned to extreme political movements, and states such as Japan and Italy pursued aggressive expansion to secure resources and prestige.OCR
Political instability: The Tsar's absence from Petrograd left the government in the hands of the unpopular Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin, severely damaging the regime's credibility…Pearson Edexcel
Political manipulation and alliances: Stalin formed shifting alliances to isolate and defeat his rivals, first allying with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky, then with Bukharin and the Right…Pearson Edexcel
Political manipulation and propaganda: The trials were highly publicised and staged, creating a narrative of a massive anti-Soviet conspiracy that terrified the population into compliance.Pearson Edexcel
Political manoeuvring: Championing rapid industrialisation allowed Stalin to outmanoeuvre political rivals like Bukharin on the right wing of the Party.Pearson Edexcel
Political opposition: Criticism of communist rule by intellectuals, including attacks on the CCP's monopoly on power, corruption and the harshness of previous campaigns.Pearson Edexcel
Political organisation: The Congresses transformed colonial grievances into an organised, armed rebellion and laid the institutional groundwork for independence.Pearson Edexcel
Political parties and parliamentary monarchy in the 1700s: Whig and Tory parties emerged and organised support, and across the 1700s a parliamentary monarchy developed in which the monarch governed through ministers…OCR
Political power: Mao’s dominant position was secured through his prestige from the Civil War, the elimination of rivals through rectification campaigns, and the personality…Pearson Edexcel
Political power bases: Stalin's role as General Secretary let him appoint loyal supporters to key party roles, whereas Trotsky lacked a strong party power base and Kamenev and…Pearson Edexcel
Political purge and fear: Local officials inflated production figures out of fear, and Mao purged Peng Dehuai, silencing all opposition.Pearson Edexcel
Political racism and antiracism: Some politicians showed hostility to non-white immigration, while campaigns and organisations opposed discrimination.OCR
Political representation: Secured political participation led to a significant increase in elected black officials.Pearson Edexcel
Political representation and equality: Despite communist rhetoric of equality, women remained underrepresented in the higher echelons of the Communist Party, holding very few positions of real…Pearson Edexcel
Political repression: The People's Court tried cases of treason and political offences outside the standard judicial system, weaponising the legal system against any opposition.Pearson Edexcel
Political rivalry: Spain's power in Europe and its control of the Netherlands threatened English security, while England's growing influence challenged Spanish dominance.Pearson Edexcel
Political stability: A condition between 1924 and 1928, largely under Stresemann, which helped keep Nazi electoral support limited.Pearson Edexcel
Political terror: The widespread terror used during the purges, involving arbitrary arrests, torture and executions affecting Party members, intellectuals and ordinary citizens.Pearson Edexcel
Pontiac's Rebellion: The immediate catalyst for the Proclamation Act, which was intended to prevent conflicts with Indigenous peoples.Pearson Edexcel
Pope Clement VII: The Pope who opposed the annulment, largely because he was effectively a prisoner of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Catherine's nephew, following the 1527…Pearson Edexcel
Popular protest and people power: Jubilant crowds dismantled the barrier, showing the unstoppable momentum of democratic movements in Eastern Europe.Pearson Edexcel
Popular protest and violence: The Sons of Liberty were a secret society that used intimidation, protests, and boycotts to resist British policies and force stamp distributors to resign.Pearson Edexcel
Popular uprisings and revolution: Without the threat of Soviet tanks, citizens felt emboldened to demand democratic changes, directly sparking the 1989 revolutions.Pearson Edexcel
port and industrial centre: London's role as a major port and vital industrial centre, which made its destruction intended to cripple the British war effort.Pearson Edexcel
Port cities and sailortowns: Places such as Liverpool, Cardiff, London and South Shields that kept growing as diverse communities in the early twentieth century, with migrants settling…OCR
Post-war reconstruction: The massive rebuilding of Britain after the Second World War, which created a severe labour shortage.Pearson Edexcel
Poverty and public health: Life in Whitechapel was an inner city area of poverty and discontent, with disease spreading rapidly in overcrowded slum rookeries and lodging houses.Pearson Edexcel
Poverty and social welfare: The local poor were major losers, deprived of charity, medical care and employment previously provided by monasteries.Pearson Edexcel
Poverty and wealth: The inhabitants of Whitechapel faced a level of poverty linked to the lack of employment opportunities.Pearson Edexcel
Power and authority: The Reformation removed the Pope's authority, placing the King at the head of the English Church, while Cromwell as Vicegerent in Spirituals wielded immense…Pearson Edexcel
Power of monarch and barons by 1087: The monarch held extensive royal land and authority, while barons held large estates but owed military service, counsel and financial dues, so royal power…OCR
Power struggle: A profound contest in which Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping gained popularity and control over the CCP apparatus, threatening Mao's absolute authority.Pearson Edexcel
Powers of the king: Held the kingdom's land and coinage, made law, raised the army and fleet, levied taxation such as heregeld and danegeld, and defended the realm against Viking…OCR
Praemunire: Serving a foreign power over the king, the charge brought against Wolsey.Pearson Edexcel
Pragmatic faction: The group around Liu and Deng that Mao sought to destroy through the Cultural Revolution.Pearson Edexcel
Pragmatic policies: Measures used by Liu and Deng to restore the economy, including restoring private plots and markets.Pearson Edexcel
Pragmatism: An approach that abandons strict ideological adherence in favour of practical solutions, which Liu and Deng used to stimulate agricultural recovery.Pearson Edexcel
Pragmatism vs Ideology: The contrast between Mao's reliance on mass mobilisation and Liu and Deng's reliance on technical experts, showing the nature of the reforms.Pearson Edexcel
Prague Spring: Alexander Dubček's reforms in 1968, which introduced 'socialism with a human face'.Pearson Edexcel
Pre-1066 population diversity: England held Anglo-Saxon communities alongside settlers of Scandinavian origin, especially in the Danelaw, and there were small groups of other migrants.OCR
preemptive strike: An attack launched first, which Israel argued was defensive due to Egyptian mobilisation.Pearson Edexcel
Preemptive warfare: The first military strike launched by Israel, which the USA tacitly approved by signalling it would not intervene to stop it.Pearson Edexcel
Preparation and logistics: William's meticulous planning, including organising a complex logistical crossing, compared with Harold's rushed response and exhausted troops.Pearson Edexcel
Presbyterian and Independent parties: Parties within Parliament that disagreed over church government and over how far to settle with the King.OCR
Presidential decision-making and escalation: Eisenhower sent military advisers and aid, Kennedy increased advisers, and Johnson began sustained bombing and the deployment of combat troops.OCR
Presidential intervention: President John F.Pearson Edexcel
Presidential leadership and legislation: Kennedy initiated the Civil Rights Act in 1963, while Johnson used his political skills and Kennedy's legacy to push it through Congress.Pearson Edexcel
Preventative medicine: A proactive rather than reactive approach to medicine, shown by modern understanding of disease transmission and lifestyle factors.Pearson Edexcel
Prevention of Disease: New approaches such as the development and use of vaccinations and the Public Health Act, which improved living conditions and prevented disease.Pearson Edexcel
Prime Ministerial authority: Under Thatcher and Blair, Prime Ministerial power grew through patronage, media management and foreign policy, shifting initiative from the Commons.OCR
Primogeniture: The system by which John's nephew Arthur of Brittany had a strong claim to the throne, being the son of John's older brother Geoffrey.Pearson Edexcel
Prison reform: A movement that gained momentum, heavily influenced by John Howard, who advocated better hygiene and salaried gaolers, and Elizabeth Fry, who focused on…Pearson Edexcel
Privateering and piracy: Raiding Spanish colonies in the Americas for plunder, which was a primary motivation for Drake's voyage and was secretly supported by Queen Elizabeth.Pearson Edexcel
Privy Council: A smaller, more professional body of around 20 trained lawyers and administrators that replaced the larger Royal Council.Pearson Edexcel
Proclamation Act (1763): Banned colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Indigenous peoples, following Pontiac's Rebellion.Pearson Edexcel
Professional army: A smaller, highly skilled force that replaced mass conscription and required complex, specialised preparation for high-tech warfare.Pearson Edexcel
Professionalisation: The shift in the recruitment and training of combatants towards professional standards, culminating in Cardwell's army reforms.Pearson Edexcel
Professionalisation of the army: The creation of the New Model Army in 1645 as a national, professional standing army with regular pay, attracting better recruits.Pearson Edexcel
Propaganda: The dissemination of state-approved messages through posters, radio broadcasts and the press, promoting communist ideals and celebrating government…OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Propaganda and censorship: Relentless propaganda and censorship were used to achieve the Cult of Stalin, with literature and music heavily censored and directed to praise Stalin's genius.Pearson Edexcel
Propaganda and culture: Nazi use of culture and propaganda to influence the population, kept separate from terror as persuasion rather than coercion.OCR
Propaganda and Mao's personality cult: Tools that built loyalty and silenced criticism.OCR
Propaganda and perception: The Wall became a powerful propaganda tool for the West, symbolising communist oppression.Pearson Edexcel
Propaganda and social pressure: The means through which appearance guidelines were heavily enforced rather than through formal criminal laws.Pearson Edexcel
Propositions of Newcastle: Parliament's terms for settlement with Charles I in 1646–1647, demanding control of the army and church, which Charles stalled.OCR
Prosperity and inequality: Booming car, electrical and construction industries and some urban white-collar workers, against struggling farmers, Black Americans, many immigrants and some…OCR
Protection rackets: A form of organised crime that, alongside gangs, challenged the police and added to their workload.Pearson Edexcel
Protector: The role William Marshal held, acting on behalf of the underage Henry III as regent.Pearson Edexcel
Protest and civil disobedience: Mass demonstrations, such as the 1969 Moratorium to End the War, demonstrated widespread public discontent to the government.Pearson Edexcel
Protest movements and direct action: CND and Greenpeace pressed policy through mass protest and direct action, often outside normal party channels.OCR
Provenance: The nature, origin and purpose of a source, weighed against the specific focus of the investigation to determine its overall value.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Provenance (Nature, Origin, Purpose): The nature of a source, meaning what it is, and its origin and purpose, which explain why it is appropriate for an investigation.Pearson Edexcel
Provisional Government: A temporary, unelected committee formed from the old Duma to run Russia following the Tsar's abdication, lacking democratic legitimacy.Pearson Edexcel
Psychological trauma: Returning veterans frequently faced severe psychological trauma, including Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).Pearson Edexcel
Public health: The area in which the 1875 Act compelled local authorities to provide clean water, dispose of sewage properly and appoint Medical Officers of Health.Pearson Edexcel
public health campaigns: Efforts focusing on prevention through lifestyle changes and genetic screening rather than just treating symptoms.Pearson Edexcel
Public history and memorials: A specific form of remembrance for an event, such as a plaque, statue, museum display, festival or anniversary, created and maintained by particular people.OCR
Public opinion: Widespread press coverage and photographic evidence of concentration camps shaped popular attitudes, highlighting the human cost of conflict and increasing…Pearson Edexcel
Public opinion and polarisation: The division of society during Lieutenant William Calley's trial, with anti-war activists seeing him as a scapegoat and pro-war supporters viewing him as a…Pearson Edexcel
Public opinion and the press: National newspapers offer insight into public opinion and the pressure placed on authorities during events like the Ripper murders.Pearson Edexcel
Punishment and control: Barton was arrested, forced to confess to fraud, and executed in 1534 via an Act of Attainder, while Fisher was tried and executed for treason in 1535.Pearson Edexcel
Purchase of commissions: A practice abolished in 1871 so that officers were promoted on merit.Pearson Edexcel
Purging: A treatment using emetics or laxatives to remove excess humours and restore health.Pearson Edexcel
Purifying the air: A preventative measure against miasma, involving carrying sweet-smelling posies, burning herbs or ringing bells to keep the air moving.Pearson Edexcel
Purpose of castle features: Linking the date of each feature to a purpose: defence, status and hospitality, comfort and display, or deliberate military neutralisation.OCR
Purveyance: The forced sale of goods to the crown at low prices, which heavily burdened the civilian population to fund campaigns.Pearson Edexcel
Push and pull factors: Reasons for moving included seeking better employment and higher wages, while Irish migrants fled poverty and the 1840s Famine and European Jewish refugees…OCR, Pearson Edexcel

Q

Quarantine: A naval measure imposed by President Kennedy on Cuba, together with a demand that the missiles be removed.OCR
Question formulation: The framing of precise, focused questions that directly address a gap in knowledge and are highly relevant to the broader enquiry.Pearson Edexcel

R

Race crimes: The criminalisation of discrimination and race crimes came about through changing social values regarding equality.Pearson Edexcel
Racial and class conflict: Deep racial tensions and broader class and religious fears, reflected in the implication of enslaved Africans and poor white colonists, including a Catholic…Pearson Edexcel
Racial hierarchy and minority communities: Ideas of a racial hierarchy developed to justify enslaving Africans, and those ideas affected settled minority communities in Britain.OCR
Racial persecution and the Holocaust: Racial persecution escalated and led to the Holocaust.OCR
Radical black movements and leaders: Development and impact of African American radical movements and leaders, including Malcolm X and Black Power.OCR
Radicalisation and propaganda: The Boston Massacre was heavily propagandised by figures like Paul Revere, further radicalising colonial public opinion and cementing the narrative of British…Pearson Edexcel
Radicalism and demands for parliamentary reform: Radicals such as Thomas Paine's Rights of Man and the corresponding societies demanded reform.OCR
Railhead: A point on the railroad network where cattle were loaded for transport to markets, with Abilene as a pioneering example.Pearson Edexcel
Railroad network: The expanding system that provided the essential link between Texan cattle and lucrative Eastern markets.Pearson Edexcel
Ransom: A colossal sum of 100,000 marks demanded to secure Richard I's release after his capture.Pearson Edexcel
Rational medicine: Explanations based on observation and logic, contrasting with supernatural beliefs.Pearson Edexcel
Reading landscape features as evidence: Asking what defends the castle naturally, where water and marshy ground matter more than height, and using water and flat ground as the key physical clues.OCR
Readmission of Jews in 1656: Jews were permitted to return and settle openly after their medieval expulsion, and their experiences included worship in synagogues and work in trade and…OCR
Rearmament: A policy that stimulated heavy industry and created millions of jobs in munitions and the armed forces.Pearson Edexcel
Reasons for the 1688 Revolution: James II's Catholic policies and the birth of a Catholic heir in 1688 prompted leading figures to invite William of Orange.OCR
Rebellion: Robert's revolt in Normandy from 1077 to 1080, sparked by a prank by his younger brothers and culminating in the battle at Gerberoi in 1079.Pearson Edexcel
Rebellion and control: Widespread rebellions led to massive confiscations, and confiscated land was redistributed to Norman barons and loyal supporters as a reward and control…Pearson Edexcel
Rebellion and opposition: The uprising began with the Lincolnshire Rising and grew into a larger rebellion in Yorkshire, with later minor uprisings giving Henry the excuse to renege on…Pearson Edexcel
Rebellion and resistance: Anglo-Saxon uprisings against William, including the revolt of Earls Edwin and Morcar, the northern rebellions and Hereward the Wake's rebellion at Ely.Pearson Edexcel
Rebellion and treason: The Revolt of the Northern Earls was the first major Catholic rebellion against Elizabeth, driven by religious and political grievances.Pearson Edexcel
Reconquista: The centuries-long campaign to expel Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula, which culminated in the fall of Granada in 1492.Pearson Edexcel
Reconstructing appearance and layout: Historians work out how Kenilworth Castle looked and was laid out at different dates by combining several kinds of evidence.OCR
Reconstruction: The period after the Civil War (1865–1877) during which the states of the Confederacy were controlled by the federal government and social legislation,…OCR
Recruitment and legislation as causes: Reasons for migration that must be identified only where they genuinely apply to the named group.OCR
Red Scare of the late 1940s: A post-war challenge in the USA, placed in the late 1940s, that included the role of J Edgar Hoover and the Rosenberg case.OCR
Red Terror: A campaign of mass killings and oppression launched by the Bolsheviks in 1918 to eliminate political opposition.Pearson Edexcel
Redistribution: The process in which land, tools and livestock were confiscated and given among the poorer peasants, temporarily creating private peasant ownership.Pearson Edexcel
Reform Through Labour: A system developed by the state to deal with political dissidents, class enemies and criminals, consisting of a vast network of penal colonies and prison camps.Pearson Edexcel
Refugee problem: Around 2.7 million East Germans fled to West Germany via West Berlin between 1949 and 1961, causing a severe 'brain drain' that threatened East Germany's…Pearson Edexcel
Refugee status: The position of Palestinian Arabs who fled or were expelled during the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War and settled in camps in Gaza, the West Bank, Lebanon, Syria…Pearson Edexcel
Refugees and displacement: The 1967 war created a new wave of Palestinian refugees, with over 300,000 fleeing the West Bank and Gaza to neighbouring Arab states like Jordan.Pearson Edexcel
Regent: A person who acts in place of the ruler; Odo frequently acted as regent when William was in Normandy.Pearson Edexcel
Regional divisions: The divide that emerged after independence, with Northern states beginning gradual abolition while Southern states entrenched slavery.Pearson Edexcel
Regional rebellion: The severe uprising in Northumbria in 1065 against Tostig, triggered by his heavy taxation, introduction of southern laws and the assassination of local rivals.Pearson Edexcel
Regionalism: The movement of immigrants into the backcountry created distinct regional identities within the colonies.Pearson Edexcel
Rehabilitation: The aim of punishment that seeks to reform offenders and reintegrate them into society as law-abiding citizens.OCR
Rehabilitation vs Retribution: The 20th century saw a shift in punishment from retribution to rehabilitation.Pearson Edexcel
Reich Chamber of Culture: Body established in 1933 to align all cultural output with Nazi ideology.Pearson Edexcel
Reich Church: An attempt to unify Protestant factions under Nazi control, led by Ludwig Müller, which blended Nazi ideology with Christianity.Pearson Edexcel
Reichstag Fire: In February 1933, blamed on a Dutch communist, it allowed Hitler to persuade Hindenburg to pass an emergency decree suspending civil liberties and targeting…Pearson Edexcel
Reiving: Raiding by families such as the Armstrongs and Grahams, involving cattle theft, blackmail payments for protection and the burning of steadings, which shaped…OCR
Relations with Parliament: Dealings between the monarch and Parliament, shaped by the wars, for example through requests for money and the tensions that followed.OCR
Reliability and limitations of sources: Each type has limits, so no single source should be trusted alone.OCR
Reliability and usefulness of sources: Each type of evidence has strengths and limits, and its reliability depends on its author and purpose.OCR
Religion and Christendom: England's position within Western Christendom, which facilitated the movement of clergy, monks and scholars across European borders and integrated England…Pearson Edexcel
Religion and morality: Catholic missionaries facilitated religious conversion and cultural assimilation, while figures like Montesinos and Las Casas protested the brutal treatment…Pearson Edexcel
Religion and prejudice: Hostility towards Jews driven by religious prejudice, including the blood libel, and by resentment over debts.Pearson Edexcel
Religion and reform: Henry's return to more conservative Catholic doctrines, which isolated the reformist Cromwell and left him accused of heresy.Pearson Edexcel
Religion and society: The place of religious practice in everyday medieval life, which the Interdict profoundly affected.Pearson Edexcel
Religion and spiritual life: Monks and nuns prayed for the souls of the dead, which was a vital comfort to the community.Pearson Edexcel
Religion and the break with Rome: Henry VIII broke with Rome in the 1530s, made himself head of the Church of England, and used Parliament to pass laws such as the Act of Supremacy.OCR
Religion and the Church: The English Church was transformed from a traditional Catholic institution into one with distinct reformist characteristics, though it remained largely…Pearson Edexcel
Religion and the Reformation: Following the Pope's excommunication of Henry in 1538, Cromwell sought an alliance with a group of Protestant German princes.Pearson Edexcel
Religious actions: Praying, fasting and going on pilgrimage, used as treatments and preventions because illness was often viewed as divine punishment.Pearson Edexcel
Religious change: The Lincolnshire Rising was sparked by rumours of church confiscations, and Aske named the uprising a 'pilgrimage' to emphasise its peaceful, religious nature.Pearson Edexcel
Religious compromise: A settlement between Catholicism and Protestantism aimed at achieving national stability.Pearson Edexcel
Religious conflict: Philip II saw himself as the defender of Catholicism against Protestant England, a tension exacerbated by Elizabeth's excommunication and her support for…Pearson Edexcel
Religious duty: As a devout Christian, Richard was driven by a genuine religious desire to liberate Jerusalem and secure forgiveness for his sins.Pearson Edexcel
Religious motivation: The primary motivation was religious: securing a plenary indulgence to guarantee entry to heaven, with the religious motivation described as seeking…Pearson Edexcel
Religious opposition and Puritanism: The theatre faced fierce opposition from Puritans, who viewed it as sinful and a breeding ground for disease and disorder.Pearson Edexcel
Religious persecution: The push factor that drove the Mormons out of Nauvoo, Illinois, fleeing persecution in the East to find an isolated place to practise their faith freely.Pearson Edexcel
Religious persecution and asylum: The Huguenots were French Protestants fleeing persecution after the 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.Pearson Edexcel
Religious policy and the attacks on Laud and Strafford: Parliament impeached Strafford and Laud, having criticised religious policies associated with Laud.OCR
Religious policy under Henry VIII and Edward VI: Policy shifted under these monarchs: Henry broke with Rome and dissolved the monasteries, while Edward moved further towards Protestantism.OCR
Religious practice and ordinary people: Parish worship, festivals and charity shaped ordinary people's routines and beliefs, and popular attitudes towards reform ranged from loyalty to quiet…OCR
Religious prejudice and popular hostility: Growing hostility towards Jews, including religious prejudice, debt resentment and violent attacks such as the York massacre of 1190.OCR
Religious reform: Strict changes introduced by Lanfranc, including ending clerical marriage, establishing Church courts separate from secular ones, and rebuilding cathedrals.Pearson Edexcel
Religious significance: East Jerusalem held profound religious significance for Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, and its annexation by Israel was highly controversial.Pearson Edexcel
Religious tension: Helping Mary would anger Scottish Protestants, but returning her could provoke Catholic outrage, and her imprisonment made her a focal point for Catholic…Pearson Edexcel
Remission of Sins (Indulgence): A pardon for sins committed, granted by the Pope.OCR
Removal of censorship: Alongside economic recovery, this fuelled the radical cultural changes and developments in architecture, art and the cinema.Pearson Edexcel
Reparations: Payments Germany defaulted on in 1923, which the French sought to extract in the form of goods and raw materials.Pearson Edexcel
Representation and the franchise: The link between Parliament and the people, including who had the vote and how constituencies were represented.OCR
Repression and censorship: Mao's swift and ruthless reaction of halting the campaign and launching the Anti-Rightist Campaign in mid-1957.Pearson Edexcel
Republican policies and ideology: Low taxation, tariffs, laissez-faire and support for business, which encouraged mass production and consumer spending.OCR
Resettlement: The assisted relocation of Loyalists by the British government to remaining North American territories, including Nova Scotia and Niagara.Pearson Edexcel
Resistance to British authority: The First Continental Congress established the Continental Association to enforce a boycott of British goods in opposition to the Coercive Acts.Pearson Edexcel
Resistance to William I: Revolts in the north and elsewhere, and resistance figures such as Hereward the Wake, were met with harsh reprisals.OCR
Resource exploitation: Columbus continually searched for the Asian mainland and sources of gold, and left 39 men behind with instructions to search for gold.Pearson Edexcel
Resource management: The colonists arrived too late in the year to plant crops and lost vital supplies when their ship, the Tiger, was damaged.Pearson Edexcel
Resource utilisation: Their means of survival depended entirely on the buffalo, which provided food, clothing, and materials for tipis.Pearson Edexcel
Responsibilities of the king: Granted land and privileges, dispensed justice, and defended the realm against Viking attack.OCR
Restoration: The return of the monarchy in 1660, when Charles II was restored after the republic faltered.OCR
Restoration of state order: The re-establishment of control by the People's Liberation Army, which forcefully disbanded student groups after the Red Guards had fractured into rival…Pearson Edexcel
Retribution: Punishing criminals to exact revenge or make them pay for their actions, inflicting deserved suffering.Pearson Edexcel
Revivalist preachers: Preachers such as George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards who drew massive crowds with fervent, emotional sermons emphasising individual salvation and a…Pearson Edexcel
Revolution: A communist revolution was what the new republic was hastily declared to prevent.Pearson Edexcel
Revolution and coup d'état: The Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917, described as a relatively small, well-organised coup d'état by armed detachments rather than a massive popular…Pearson Edexcel
Rewriting history: History was systematically altered, notably through the 'Short Course' on the history of the Communist Party, which exaggerated Stalin's role in the 1917…Pearson Edexcel
rightists: The label given to intellectuals, students, and party members who had spoken out and were targeted by the purge.Pearson Edexcel
Rights and liberties: Evolving ideas about civil liberties, including the abolition movement and Catholic emancipation, slowly changed the legal and social landscape for minority…Pearson Edexcel
Rise of radicalism: The Bolsheviks emerged as the armed saviours of Petrograd, significantly boosting their popularity and securing weapons.Pearson Edexcel
Rivalry and diplomacy: Richard's relationship with King Philip II of France culminated in a bitter quarrel, with disputes stemming from Richard's refusal to marry Philip's sister…Pearson Edexcel
Rivonia Trial and its consequences: The trial of 1964 had consequences for the leadership of resistance.OCR
Robert Peel: Key individual whose contribution to penal reform and to the development of the Metropolitan Police Force is studied.Pearson Edexcel
Role of Individuals: Nightingale transformed hospital care and nursing, Simpson discovered chloroform in 1847 and Lister developed carbolic acid as an antiseptic in 1865.Pearson Edexcel
Role of key individuals (Eleanor of Aquitaine): She spearheaded the collection of the ransom, implementing heavy taxation and seizing gold and silver from churches.Pearson Edexcel
Role of places of worship: Offered practical help, a sense of belonging and a way to preserve language and customs.OCR
Role of the Church: Hospitals were largely run by the Church, focusing on hospitality and spiritual care for the elderly and destitute rather than treating the sick.Pearson Edexcel
Role of the Red Guards: Mao's youthful enforcers of class struggle, described as a mass student movement mobilised by Mao.OCR
Rookeries: Densely populated slum housing areas characterised by dirt, disease, and complex layouts that aided criminals.Pearson Edexcel
Royal African Company: Its monopoly was lifted in 1698, opening the slave trade to other merchants and widening economic involvement.OCR
Royal authority: William's absolute power over his newly conquered kingdom, reinforced by the survey's demonstration of the immense administrative power of the Norman state.Pearson Edexcel
Royal authority and control: Establishing control on the borderlands by delegating the defence of the frontier to trusted allies through the use of earls.Pearson Edexcel
Royal authority and crown ownership: The castle passed into crown hands and became a statement of royal control, later remodelled to display wealth and favour.OCR
Royal authority and finance: The role of the monarchy, including the pressing need for royal finance, which led kings to invite migrants such as Jewish financiers or Italian bankers.Pearson Edexcel
Royal authority and its limits: The barons sought to limit royal power, and Magna Carta fundamentally challenged the concept of absolute monarchy.Pearson Edexcel
Royal authority and power: Capturing London trapped John and forced him to the negotiating table at Runnymede, where he was compelled to seal Magna Carta to buy time and regain control.Pearson Edexcel
Royal demesne: Land owned directly by the king, which provided significant revenue and generated rent and agricultural income.Pearson Edexcel
Royal finance and exploitation: The Crown extracted Jewish wealth through arbitrary taxation, such as the tallage, to fund royal endeavours like Richard's crusade and John's wars.Pearson Edexcel
Royal finances: The money available to the king, strained by the castle's construction, which cost an estimated £12,000, roughly double what Richard spent on all his castles…Pearson Edexcel
Royal forests: Extensive areas established by the Normans for exclusive hunting privileges.Pearson Edexcel
Royal Injunctions: Provided further instructions to the clergy.Pearson Edexcel
Royal majesty and display: Crown-wearings at major religious festivals further reinforced the king's majesty and authority to his subjects.Pearson Edexcel
Royal patronage: Sponsorship from a monarch, which Columbus sought for years before securing Spanish backing.Pearson Edexcel
Royal prerogative: John viewed the consecration of Stephen Langton as a direct attack on his traditional right to choose his own bishops.Pearson Edexcel
Royal Proclamation of 1763: A measure that attempted to limit westward expansion, issued after Pontiac's Rebellion.Pearson Edexcel
Royal protection and taxation: Jews were protected by the crown because their moneylending and taxation were valuable to rulers.OCR
Royal reputation: The catastrophic loss severely damaged John's reputation, earning him the nickname 'Softsword'.Pearson Edexcel
Royal response and military suppression: William's methods of defeating the uprisings, including marching north building castles, paying off the Danes, devastating the region and besieging Ely.Pearson Edexcel
Royal succession: The question of who would follow William I, shaped by his strained relationship with his eldest son Robert and his reluctance to leave England to him.Pearson Edexcel
Royal Supremacy: The concept arising from Henry's desire for increased power and sovereignty, eliminating the Pope's authority in England.Pearson Edexcel
Royal vulnerability: The exposure of a crusading monarch to danger, shown by Richard being forced to travel overland in disguise and being recognised and arrested.Pearson Edexcel
Rule of the Major Generals: In 1655–1656 the country was divided into districts run by Major Generals, who were army officers.OCR
Rump Parliament: The body that declared a Republic in 1649, after the execution of Charles I.OCR
Rural hardship and collectivisation: Collectivisation devastated rural life, as peasants were forced onto collective farms, enduring famine and brutal state requisitioning of grain.Pearson Edexcel
Rural vs urban experience: In the countryside collectivisation and communes had a profound impact, while in towns the Danwei system regulated family life.Pearson Edexcel
Russian and Chinese support: Aid from both communist powers, who provided billions of dollars in vital aid, including advanced surface-to-air missiles, artillery and medical supplies.Pearson Edexcel
Russification: A drive under Stalin, alongside centralisation and fear of anti-Soviet nationalism, behind the persecution of ethnic minorities.Pearson Edexcel

S

Sabra and Shatila massacres: Massacres carried out by Lebanese Christian Phalangist militias, for which Israel was condemned for allowing them access to the camps.Pearson Edexcel
Saladin Tithe: A means by which English people supported the crusades financially.Pearson Edexcel
Salutary neglect: The pre-war relationship between Britain and the colonists, which came to an end after the war and whose ending caused friction.Pearson Edexcel
Sanctions and the United Democratic Front: International sanctions and a broad coalition that coordinated mass resistance increased pressure on the regime.OCR
Satire and visual evidence: Punch cartoons serve as valuable satirical evidence, criticising police incompetence and societal attitudes towards the poor.Pearson Edexcel
Scans: These provide detailed images of the body's interior, enabling the early detection of tumours and internal injuries.Pearson Edexcel
Science and technology: Used in diagnosis and treatment, including CT scans and bronchoscopies for detailed imaging and tissue samples, and targeted radiotherapy, chemotherapy,…Pearson Edexcel
Scissor Crisis: A problem eventually caused by the New Economic Policy, where industrial prices rose while agricultural prices fell.Pearson Edexcel
Scottish cultural identity and Gaelic culture: Banning Highland dress and the bagpipes and restricting the Episcopalian clergy were cultural restrictions, and a consequence for Scotland was the decline of…OCR
Scutage: A tax paid in lieu of military service, which John levied frequently and at high rates to fund his planned wars in France.Pearson Edexcel
Search and Destroy: Missions that involved inserting US troops into villages via helicopter to locate and eliminate Vietcong fighters, often resulting in civilian casualties and…Pearson Edexcel
Secession: The act of formally withdrawing from a federation or body, especially a political state.OCR
Second Boer War: A war that involved guerrilla warfare, concentration camps and the deaths of many Boer civilians, and exposed poor fitness of recruits.OCR
Second Cold War: The renewed hostility characterised by Reagan's tough anti-communist stance after becoming US President in 1981.Pearson Edexcel
Second Order Concepts: The analytical frameworks used by historians to study the past: Change, Continuity, Causation, Consequence, Significance, and Similarity/Difference.OCR
Secularisation of medicine: The slow shift of hospitals from religious institutions offering hospitality to secular establishments beginning to focus on medical treatment.Pearson Edexcel
Segregation: The practice legally overturned in education by the unanimous Supreme Court ruling, which provided a crucial precedent for the civil rights movement.Pearson Edexcel
Seljuk Turks: A nomadic Sunni Muslim dynasty that conquered large parts of the Byzantine Empire and the Middle East in the 11th century.OCR
Separate but equal: The doctrine established by Plessy v.Pearson Edexcel
Separate Development and Bantustans: Bantustans were established as nominally self-governing homelands under Separate Development.OCR
Separate System: A prison regime, pioneered at Pentonville Prison (1842), in which prisoners were kept in solitary confinement, forbidden from communicating with other…OCR
servants: Workers who kept the castle supplied and maintained alongside stable hands, gardeners and craftsmen.OCR
Service and household employment: Service in royal and noble households, and work as sailors or musicians, were reasons for arrival.OCR
Settlement: The settlement of the Plains was accelerated by technological advancements that made homesteading a viable, profitable enterprise.Pearson Edexcel
Sharpeville Massacre and its impact: Its impact fell on opposition and international opinion.OCR
Sheriffs: Officials who collected revenues from the royal demesne, paid a fixed sum to the Exchequer and kept any surplus as personal profit.Pearson Edexcel
shield wall: A formidable defensive formation formed by Harold's Anglo-Saxon army on the high ground at Senlac Hill, which initially repelled Norman archers and infantry.Pearson Edexcel
Shifting alliances: A feature of the continuous warfare, as John initially allied with Philip to undermine Richard but fought against him after becoming king.Pearson Edexcel
Shifting power dynamics: The revolt fatally weakened the Provisional Government and revived Bolshevik fortunes, paving the way for their October seizure of power.Pearson Edexcel
Ship money: A disputed levy through which Charles raised revenue, which many saw as unlawful.OCR
Shops, food businesses and street signage: Physical evidence including shops, food businesses, street signs and languages on shopfronts that migration has left in the urban environment.OCR
Short Course: A publication on the history of the Communist Party that exaggerated Stalin's role in the 1917 Revolution and erased rivals like Trotsky from photographs.Pearson Edexcel
Shuttle diplomacy: Kissinger's method of flying repeatedly between Middle Eastern capitals to mediate peace agreements without requiring direct face-to-face talks between…Pearson Edexcel
siege of Rochester Castle: A key early conflict of October to November 1215, in which John took the rebel-held castle by undermining the keep using pig fat to burn the wooden props.Pearson Edexcel
Siege warfare: The final victory in 1521 was achieved through a prolonged siege of Tenochtitlan, heavily reliant on Tlaxcalan support and the impact of smallpox.Pearson Edexcel
Silent majority: Term popularised by President Nixon in a 1969 speech to describe the millions of Americans who supported his Vietnam policies but did not publicly protest.Pearson Edexcel
Sinai agreements: The Sinai I (1974) and Sinai II (1975) agreements between Egypt and Israel reached through Kissinger's diplomatic effort.Pearson Edexcel
Sino-Soviet relations: Cooperation in which the USSR gave financial and technical support, providing the blueprint for industrialisation but also creating a heavy debt burden and…Pearson Edexcel
Sir Charles Warren: Appointed Commissioner in 1886, he faced criticism for his militaristic approach and handling of protests, which worsened public attitudes towards the police.Pearson Edexcel
Site and situation of a castle: The ground a castle occupies and the natural features around it, separating the immediate ground and water beside the walls from the surrounding landscape and…OCR
Site versus commemoration: Keeping the original site of an event separate from a later commemorative or memorial location, so a memorial or plaque is not treated as the place where the…OCR
Skilled, unskilled and self-employed work: Many arrivals took low-paid or unskilled posts, while some ran their own businesses, so unskilled labour is distinguished from self-employed or skilled work.OCR
Slave codes: Strict laws used to control the enslaved population by restricting their movement, education and ability to assemble.Pearson Edexcel
Slave ports and merchant involvement: Bristol, Liverpool and London developed as slave ports whose merchants fitted out ships for the Atlantic trade, while smaller ports also took a share.OCR
Slavery and forced labour: Following the Indigenous population collapse, the Spanish initiated the use of enslaved Africans to meet labour demands.Pearson Edexcel
sleep deprivation: A method used to extract confessions from those accused of witchcraft.Pearson Edexcel
Smallpox: A European disease brought by the Spanish to which the Indigenous population had no natural immunity, causing catastrophic effects.Pearson Edexcel
Smallpox epidemic: A devastating outbreak that severely weakened the Aztec defenders during the siege.Pearson Edexcel
Smuggling: A crime that thrived due to high import duties on goods like tea, often supported by local communities, and faded when taxes were reduced in the 1840s.Pearson Edexcel
Social and economic change: The impact of the dissolutions, which created distinct beneficiaries and losers in English society.Pearson Edexcel
Social class and attitudes: Punch cartoons illustrate middle-class anxieties and highlight the severe social inequalities of the period.Pearson Edexcel
Social class and leisure: Leisure varied significantly across social classes, with the nobility engaging in exclusive sports to demonstrate their status while the lower classes took…Pearson Edexcel
Social class and structure: Social structures altered by creating a large working class and a powerful middle class.Pearson Edexcel
Social control: A vital mechanism through which the Church reinforced obedience to the Queen and ensured conformity and stability.Pearson Edexcel
Social control and forced migration: The 'Up to the mountains and down to the villages' campaign exiled millions of radicalised urban youths to remote rural areas to learn from the peasants,…Pearson Edexcel
Social crime: A concept used when discussing smuggling and poaching to explain why law enforcement struggled to secure convictions, as such crimes were often supported by…Pearson Edexcel
Social hierarchy: By 1087 the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy was almost entirely replaced, with only a tiny fraction of land remaining in English hands, while changes primarily…Pearson Edexcel
Social impact of fear: The climate of fear that stifled innovation and created a compliant, terrified society.Pearson Edexcel
Social impact of war: The social impact of the war included rationing, tax on luxuries, housing shortages and an increase in divorce.OCR
Social inequality: Significant wealth and power disparities existed between coastal planters and backcountry farmers, and newly arrived immigrants often felt marginalised by the…Pearson Edexcel
Social integration and assimilation: Their shared Protestant faith with the English majority and the economic benefits they brought facilitated their rapid assimilation into society.Pearson Edexcel
Social mobility: Social structures evolved as a growing "middling sort" of merchants and professionals challenged traditional hierarchies.Pearson Edexcel
Social mobility and meritocracy: Promotion based on merit rather than social status, creating a highly effective and motivated fighting force.Pearson Edexcel
Social organisation: Property was communal and wealth was measured in horses, not land.Pearson Edexcel
Social organisation and leadership: Social and tribal structures were non-hierarchical and based on consensus, with tribes divided into smaller bands and chiefs chosen for wisdom or hunting…Pearson Edexcel
Social polarisation: The event revealed a stark generational and political divide, with some Americans, including Nixon, blaming the students for the unrest.Pearson Edexcel
Social policy and the family: The changes in family life, including easier divorce and legalised abortion in the 1920s, reversed by Stalin's 'Great Retreat' in the 1930s, which promoted…Pearson Edexcel
Social reform: Attempts to improve housing included the Peabody Estate, providing model dwellings for the working poor, though rents were often too high for the most…Pearson Edexcel
Social stratification: The deep division of Soviet society into groups with vastly differing experiences, contradicting the communist ideal of an egalitarian society.Pearson Edexcel
Social structure: The core of the force consisted of the nobility and their retinues, bound by the feudal system, with warfare being expensive so that the core fighters were…Pearson Edexcel
Social tension and integration: Migrants often faced hostility from the existing population due to economic rivalry, yet authorities sometimes protected them for their economic value.Pearson Edexcel
Social transformation: Bolshevik policies aimed to radically alter daily life and transform Russia into a socialist society, though full implementation was frequently limited by…Pearson Edexcel
Social unrest: Widespread strikes in the towns and cities stripped Chiang Kai-shek of his traditional power base and facilitated the CCP's success.Pearson Edexcel
Social upheaval: Officials were dragged into 'struggle sessions' where they were publicly humiliated, beaten and often killed, while rival factions engaged in armed battles.Pearson Edexcel
Social upheaval and generational conflict: The disruption of Chinese society in which youths rebelled against authority figures, breaking down traditional family and social respect.Pearson Edexcel
Social welfare and charity: Religious houses acted as hospitals for the sick, almshouses for the elderly and destitute, and orphanages.Pearson Edexcel
Society and population: Sympathetic citizens opened the city gates, allowing the barons to capture the capital without resistance.Pearson Edexcel
Socio-economic inequality: Economic inequality, police brutality and poor housing remained entrenched, particularly in Northern cities.Pearson Edexcel
Source analysis: Extracting meaningful information from a source by asking targeted questions that address the investigation.Pearson Edexcel
Source evaluation: Judging the utility of sources for a historical enquiry, recognising that personal accounts may be highly subjective and that photographs capture a specific…Pearson Edexcel
Source interpretation: Anglo-Saxon and Norman sources differ on the purpose and nature of Harold's oath, so the Norman account should not be treated as undisputed fact.Pearson Edexcel
Source selection: Choosing appropriate sources for specific investigations by matching the type of evidence to the precise nature of the enquiry.Pearson Edexcel
Source utility: How appropriate a source is for a specific investigation, judged by matching its nature, origin and purpose to the aims of that enquiry.Pearson Edexcel
South Sea Bubble: The speculative investment in imperial trade in 1719 showed how such investment could destabilise finance.OCR
Soviet consolidation of control in Eastern Europe: Between 1945 and 1948 the USSR consolidated control over Eastern Europe, with Soviet forces occupying much of the region at the end of the war.OCR
Soviet Order Number 1: An order instructing soldiers to obey the Provisional Government only if orders did not contradict the Soviet, giving the Soviet veto power over military…Pearson Edexcel
Soviet-Cuban alliance: Closer relations in which the USSR bought Cuban sugar and provided military aid under a 1960 trade agreement, cemented by the Bay of Pigs failure.Pearson Edexcel
Spartacists: A left-wing communist group that attempted an armed uprising in Berlin in January 1919 to establish a communist state.Pearson Edexcel
Speak bitterness meetings: Meetings where peasants were encouraged to publicly accuse landlords of past abuses, often escalating into violence and executions.Pearson Edexcel
Speakeasies: Illegal bars that operated during the Prohibition era following the ratification of the 18th Amendment.Eduqas
Spiritual authority: The Church controlled salvation, using the threat of excommunication and interdict to enforce obedience.Pearson Edexcel
Spontaneous revolution: The February Revolution is emphasised as spontaneous in nature compared to the planned October Revolution.Pearson Edexcel
Spread of the railroad network: Facilitated the rapid movement of homesteaders onto the Plains, enabled the transport of agricultural goods and cattle to eastern markets, and accelerated the…Pearson Edexcel
Stab in the back theory: The false claim that the undefeated German army was betrayed by socialist and Jewish politicians at home who signed the armistice.Pearson Edexcel
Standard of living: Agricultural workers faced low wages and restricted movement, and their standard of living remained significantly lower than that of urban workers.Pearson Edexcel
Standing army: A permanent, professional force that replaced temporary feudal levies and militia, notably the New Model Army.Pearson Edexcel
State centralisation: The Bolsheviks established a highly centralised, authoritarian state apparatus after securing their grip on power through the Civil War.Pearson Edexcel
State control and coercion: The change from voluntary to enforced collectivisation was a top-down policy driven by Mao and the state's economic needs.Pearson Edexcel
State control in wartime: Emergency legislation, direction of labour, rationing and censorship extended state power over daily life in the two world wars.OCR
State control of professions: Control over teachers was absolute, with remaining teachers forced to join the Nazi Teachers' League and attend ideological training camps.Pearson Edexcel
State expansion and wartime taxation: The state expanded as income tax was introduced, the population was counted and troops were raised by recruitment and militia ballot.OCR
State intervention in private life: In towns, the Danwei system controlled housing, food rations and marriage approvals, deeply integrating the state into urban family life and eroding private…Pearson Edexcel
State resistance: Governor Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard to block the students, leaving Elizabeth Eckford to face a violent white mob.Pearson Edexcel
State terror: Enforcement through the secret police's surveillance, arrests, interrogations and executions, operating outside the law and using torture to extract false…Pearson Edexcel
State violence and law enforcement: Ohio National Guardsmen fired into a crowd of student protesters, killing four and wounding nine.Pearson Edexcel
State-sponsored violence: Violence orchestrated by the Nazi leadership, as during 'Kristallnacht', a state-sponsored pogrom.Pearson Edexcel
Statistical evidence: Objective, macro-level statistics on migration, employment and housing across the UK offered by government records and census data.Pearson Edexcel
Status of Aliens Act 1914: Defined alien status and tightened controls as war began.OCR
Status, wealth and display: An owner's status, wealth or royal connections shaped how they lived in the castle, with grander accommodation for display and hospitality.OCR
Stigand: The Anglo-Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury who was pluralist and uncanonical, symbolising the corruption William sought to reform.Pearson Edexcel
Stokely Carmichael: As leader of SNCC, he popularised the slogan 'Black Power' in 1966, shifting the group away from interracial non-violence towards black self-reliance and…Pearson Edexcel
Stone towers and defences: Later building that added stone towers and stronger defences, including walls and water barriers, to resist attack.OCR
Storage of blood: Developments such as adding sodium citrate to prevent clotting, which paved the way for indirect transfusions during the war.Pearson Edexcel
Strategic adaptation: A consequence of the Putsch was a shift from armed rebellion to seeking power through democratic elections.Pearson Edexcel
Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI): A proposed system of space-based lasers intended to intercept and destroy incoming Soviet nuclear missiles, announced in 1983 and nicknamed 'Star Wars'.Pearson Edexcel
Strategic delay and logistics: The raid's destruction of Spanish ships and supplies, notably barrel staves, which delayed the Armada's launch by over a year and bought England time to…Pearson Edexcel
Strategic geography: Panama's crucial geographical position made it the staging post for future Spanish expeditions heading south and the vital transit point for wealth extracted…Pearson Edexcel
Strategic leadership: Cortés scuttled his fleet to eliminate the possibility of retreat and force his soldiers to commit entirely to the campaign.Pearson Edexcel
Strategic settlement: La Paz, founded in 1548, acted as a vital commercial hub, cementing Spanish authority and facilitating the extraction of mineral wealth.Pearson Edexcel
Strategic warfare: Securing the south coast and capturing Dover and Canterbury to protect supply lines rather than marching immediately on London.Pearson Edexcel
Strength Through Joy (KdF): A movement that offered subsidised holidays and the Volkswagen savings scheme to maintain morale and control leisure.Pearson Edexcel
Struggle sessions: Method in which workers were encouraged to denounce their bosses, leading to mass suicides and the state confiscation of private businesses.Pearson Edexcel
Student movement: Groups such as Students for a Democratic Society held large-scale protests and teach-ins questioning the morality of the war.Pearson Edexcel
Student protest: Students demonstrating against President Nixon's expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia.Pearson Edexcel
Submission and fealty: At Berkhamsted the English leaders submitted to William, offered hostages and swore oaths of fealty, paving the way for his coronation.Pearson Edexcel
Subversion of justice: The Nazis retained the legal system but subverted it to serve their own ideological purposes rather than abolishing it.Pearson Edexcel
Succession: Richard's succession was relatively smooth as he was the undisputed heir after his older brothers died.Pearson Edexcel
Succession and dynasty: A primary aim as monarch was to secure the Tudor dynasty by producing a legitimate male heir.Pearson Edexcel
Succession and heirs: Anne Boleyn's failure to provide a male heir was a primary personal reason for her fall, having only given birth to Princess Elizabeth and suffering…Pearson Edexcel
Succession and inheritance: When Earl Godwin died in 1053, his son Harold Godwinson succeeded him as Earl of Wessex, the richest earldom in England.Pearson Edexcel
Succession and the Tudor dynasty: Henry's need for a legitimate male heir, secured by the birth of Prince Edward, fulfilled his primary goal of securing the Tudor dynasty.Pearson Edexcel
Succession crisis: The disputed succession that followed William I's death in 1087, when his divided inheritance sparked conflict over who should rule.Pearson Edexcel
Suez Canal: Remained closed after the 1967 war and became a heavily fortified frontline, with the continued dispute over it leading to the War of Attrition.Pearson Edexcel
Suffragette: A member of the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union), who campaigned for women's votes using militant tactics including window smashing, arson, hunger…OCR
Suffragist: A member of the NUWSS (National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies), who campaigned for women's votes using peaceful, constitutional methods such as…OCR
Sulh-i-kul: Literally 'universal peace'.OCR
Summit meetings: Meetings held from 1959 to 1961 at Geneva, Camp David, Paris and Vienna, which failed to reach a lasting agreement and ended with increased tension at Vienna…Pearson Edexcel
Supernatural beliefs: Explanations of disease that included the Devil and evil spirits being blamed for causing sickness.Pearson Edexcel
Superpower intervention: Intense pressure from the USA and USSR that forced a humiliating withdrawal of the invading forces during the Suez Crisis.Pearson Edexcel
Superpower relations: The relations between the superpowers, which the note says were affected by the invasion alongside relations within the communist bloc.Pearson Edexcel
Superpower rivalry: The competition between the USA and the Soviet Union that shaped policies in the Middle East until the end of the Cold War.Pearson Edexcel
Superpower rivalry and the spread of influence: Rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the spread of communist and capitalist influence, which was a cause of rising tension.OCR
Superpower rivalry between the USA and the USSR: A new order took shape around two superpowers after the wartime alliance broke down.OCR
Support and opposition: The extent of support for the war effort must be weighed against opposition during the war, such as dissent and resistance.OCR
Suppression Acts: Acts of 1536 and 1539 that backed the closure and surrender of houses.OCR
Supreme Court rulings and legal change: The Supreme Court declared segregated schools unconstitutional in Brown v.OCR
Surgical Advancements: Anaesthetics and antiseptics revolutionised surgery, with chloroform solving the problem of pain and carbolic acid dramatically reducing post-operative…Pearson Edexcel
Sweated labour: Exploitative 'sweated trades' such as tailoring were the work Jewish migrants found in the East End.Pearson Edexcel
swim test: A water ordeal used to determine guilt, in which a person who floated was considered guilty.Pearson Edexcel
Swinging Sixties: A cultural revolution bringing fashion and music to areas like Chelsea, which contrasted with poverty elsewhere in London.Pearson Edexcel
Symbolism in the Cold War: The Berlin Wall was the ultimate physical symbol of the 'Iron Curtain' and the division of Europe.Pearson Edexcel
Symbols of authority: Its strong position and massive keep symbolised Norman authority and made resistance harder.OCR

T

Tactical evolution: Cavalry shifted from shock troops to roles focused on reconnaissance and skirmishing.Pearson Edexcel
Tactical innovation: The longbow provided rapid, armour-piercing ranged attacks, while schiltrons were dense formations of infantry wielding long spears.Pearson Edexcel
Tactics and strategy: His strategic deployment of archers on the flanks and men-at-arms in the centre maximised his army's defensive capabilities against the French.Pearson Edexcel
Taino: The Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean whose population was devastated by Spanish settlement.Pearson Edexcel
Tainos: Indigenous people Columbus initially encountered, described as peaceful and facilitating early trade, who wore gold ornaments.Pearson Edexcel
Taxation: New taxes introduced by Britain after the war, which colonists viewed as tyrannical.Pearson Edexcel
Taxation and economy: Heavy taxation, including a 25% tax on income and movables, imposed to raise the ransom, causing economic strain and resentment.Pearson Edexcel
Taxation and representation: The Stamp Act of 1765 imposed a direct tax on printed materials, uniting colonists in opposition under the rallying cry of 'no taxation without representation'.Pearson Edexcel
Tea Act: The law that gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales, against which the Boston Tea Party was a direct protest.Pearson Edexcel
Technological advancement: The use of science and technology, such as two-way radios, DNA profiling, fingerprinting and CCTV, which revolutionised policing.Pearson Edexcel
Technological change: New weapons and formations, including the longbow, schiltrons, gunpowder and cannon, transformed strategy, tactics and combat between 1250 and 1500.Pearson Edexcel
Technological disparity: The Spanish used superior weaponry and horses at the Battle of Cajamarca to ambush and massacre thousands of unarmed Incas.Pearson Edexcel
Technological Innovation: New technology and new farming methods that transformed farming on the Great Plains by overcoming the harsh, arid environment.Pearson Edexcel
Technological warfare vs guerrilla warfare: Conventional equipment was unsuited for guerrilla warfare, so US technological superiority was neutralised against the Vietcong's guerrilla tactics.Pearson Edexcel
Television war: Vietnam was the first conflict of its kind, with uncensored media coverage broadcasting graphic images of casualties and atrocities into American living rooms.Pearson Edexcel
Tenants-in-chief: Barons and bishops who received estates from the king in return for homage and knight service.Pearson Edexcel
Terrain: The local surroundings, of which the Vietcong had deep knowledge and on which they relied alongside surprise and mobility.Pearson Edexcel
Territorial changes: Alterations to territory following the 1948–49 Arab-Israeli War, including Israel expanding beyond the 1947 UN Partition Plan and capturing the western Galilee.Pearson Edexcel
Territorial expansion: After the war, British settlers continued encroaching on Native lands in the Ohio Valley, keeping relations with Indigenous peoples tense.Pearson Edexcel
Territorial expansion and empire: Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris Britain gained Canada and lands east of the Mississippi from France, plus Florida from Spain, while returning some Caribbean…OCR
Territorial expansion and land loss: The 1783 Treaty of Paris transferred vast territories west of the Appalachian Mountains to the new United States, leaving Indigenous lands vulnerable to…Pearson Edexcel
Terror and violence: The use of terror by the Red Guards escalated as different factions competed to prove their ideological purity.Pearson Edexcel
Terrorism, counter measures and civil liberties: The threat from Islamist terrorism post-2003, including the 2005 London bombings, and legislation such as counter-terrorism laws balancing security and civil…OCR
Tet Offensive: An event whose television coverage increased public doubt about the war.OCR
The 'Great Matter': The King's annulment, which Wolsey failed to secure, proving he could not deliver it.Pearson Edexcel
The 'Great Retreat': Stalin's reversal in the 1930s of the progressive family policies of the 1920s, promoting traditional family life to combat falling birth rates.Pearson Edexcel
The 'multi-cultural society' debate: A disagreement about whether Britain should encourage distinct cultural identities or expect greater integration, argued both ways by politicians, media and…OCR
The 1932 election: The Presidential election campaigns of 1932, contrasting Hoover and Roosevelt.OCR
The arts and Socialist Realism: Writers and artists were forced to produce works glorifying Stalin, and literature and music were directed to praise his genius.Pearson Edexcel
The Bill of Rights and its legacy: The Bill of Rights of 1689 limited royal power and confirmed parliamentary rights.OCR
The Bloody Code: A system that imposed the death penalty for minor crimes and was dismantled as juries refused to convict and it failed to deter crime.Pearson Edexcel
The breakdown of traditional authority: The tearing apart of teachers, intellectuals and ordinary families by ideological fanaticism as youths rebelled against authority figures.Pearson Edexcel
The causeway: Controlled access across the water defences, channelling visitors along a set route.OCR
The changing nature of criminal activity: New forms have emerged, such as cybercrime and online fraud, while crimes against authority have evolved from treason to modern terrorism.Pearson Edexcel
The Changing Role of the Cowboy: A shift from long drives to fence maintenance, as ranchers bought smaller fenced plots and grew winter feed.Pearson Edexcel
The collapse of Soviet hegemony: The loosening of the Soviet grip on Eastern Europe meant Eastern European states could do things 'their way'.Pearson Edexcel
The collapse of the Iron Curtain: The destruction of the Wall signified the collapse of Soviet control over East Germany and effectively ended the division of Europe.Pearson Edexcel
The Colour Bar: A form of racial segregation, not official policy but widely practised, which barred non-white people from jobs, housing, and social venues.OCR
The Conquistadors: Balboa's claim provided the legal and strategic basis for Spain's Pacific empire and the conquest of the Incas.Pearson Edexcel
The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Cold War confrontation of 1962 within the period 1954–1975, named as an example of a confrontation between the superpowers.OCR
The decline of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy: The systematic destruction of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and total Norman domination that resulted from the revolts.Pearson Edexcel
The destruction of education and intellect: The complete paralysis of the education system, with schools and universities closed for years and teachers targeted as 'intellectuals'.Pearson Edexcel
The destruction of indigenous societies: The Spanish invasion had catastrophic consequences for the Aztec civilisation, leading to its near-total destruction, with the Aztec Empire dismantled and…Pearson Edexcel
The destruction of the Old Bolsheviks: Prominent Old Bolsheviks such as Zinoviev, Kamenev and Bukharin were forced to publicly confess to treason, often after severe torture or threats to their…Pearson Edexcel
The division of Vietnam after 1954: After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the Geneva Accords divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel.OCR
The end of détente: The period of détente was definitively ended by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, leading the US Senate to refuse ratification of the SALT 2 treaty.Pearson Edexcel
The end of salutary neglect: Strict enforcement of the collection of the tax ended the unofficial policy of 'salutary neglect' where smuggling was largely ignored.Pearson Edexcel
The eradication of private property: In enforced collectives, peasants surrendered their land titles and equipment to the collective, receiving payment solely based on their labour, effectively…Pearson Edexcel
The family unit: The foundational unit of the state, viewed by the Nazis as essential for breeding the next generation of soldiers and mothers.Pearson Edexcel
The feudal system and landholding: Land held from the king in return for military service, with tenants-in-chief, under-tenants and unfree peasants.OCR
The First New Deal: Roosevelt's First New Deal: the Hundred Days and the Alphabet Agencies, including the Agricultural Adjustment Agency, Civilian Conservation Corps, Federal…OCR
The Gestapo: The secret state police under Reinhard Heydrich, which operated without judicial oversight to identify and arrest political opponents and relied heavily on…Pearson Edexcel
The Great Die-Up: The name for the harsh winter of 1886–87, when freezing temperatures and deep snow killed up to 15% of open-range herds.Pearson Edexcel
The Great Famine: The catastrophic failure of the Great Leap Forward which killed millions.Pearson Edexcel
The great hall: Served domestic and ceremonial needs, showing the castle as a residence as well as a fortress.OCR
The great hall and household: The great hall and kitchens met the daily needs of a resident household, including eating, meeting and storing food.OCR
The historic environment: The subject of specific historical investigations, here the historic environment of Notting Hill, c1948–c1970.Pearson Edexcel
The illusion of legality: The trials appeared to be legal proceedings, but the verdicts were predetermined and confessions were extracted through torture.Pearson Edexcel
The impact of technology on crime: Criminals adapt traditional offences to exploit modern technological advancements, fundamentally altering the landscape of criminal activity.Pearson Edexcel
The impact of terrain on warfare: The muddy terrain exhausted the heavily armoured French knights and funnelled them into a narrow front.Pearson Edexcel
The League of Nations: Settled some disputes in the 1920s but failed over Manchuria in 1931 and Abyssinia in 1935, so it was neither wholly successful nor wholly failed.OCR
The League of Nations in the 1920s: Settled some disputes and had membership limits, relying on member co-operation rather than its own army.OCR
The legacy of Lenin: Lenin's critical Testament was a weakness for Stalin, and there was no formal deputy or guaranteed successor among the leading figures.Pearson Edexcel
The legislative impact of protest: Peaceful protests created immense public pressure that compelled federal action on civil rights.Pearson Edexcel
The myth versus reality of the Wild West: Wyatt Earp represented the blurred lines between lawmen and criminals, showing that formal law enforcement was frequently ineffective or compromised.Pearson Edexcel
The Naturalisation Act of 1870: Government legislation that reformed the law, allowing aliens to apply for naturalisation and setting out requirements.OCR
The Norman invasion: William, Duke of Normandy, invaded and won at Hastings, establishing a Norman monarchy.OCR
The outbreak of war in 1939: Germany invaded Poland in September and Britain and France declared war.OCR
The police state: A system relying on terror to eliminate opposition, in which the SS oversaw all police forces and the Gestapo arrested political opponents without judicial…Pearson Edexcel
The policy of Appeasement: Pursued especially by Britain under Neville Chamberlain, it conceded to Hitler's demands, for example at the Munich Agreement, in the hope of avoiding war.OCR
The power of the military (PLA): The People's Liberation Army was authorised by Mao to suppress the Red Guards, marking the moment the military became the dominant political force in China.Pearson Edexcel
The Protectorate constitutions: The Instrument of Government of 1653 made Cromwell Lord Protector with a Council and Parliament, and the Humble Petition and Advice offered him the crown,…OCR
The purpose of punishment: The aim of punishment shifted from pure retribution and deterrence towards rehabilitation during the 18th and 19th centuries.Pearson Edexcel
The refugee crisis and East German weakness: By 1961 around three million East Germans had left for the West, many through Berlin, which weakened the East German state.OCR
The retreat to nationalism in the 1930s: Japan invaded Manchuria, Italy invaded Abyssinia, Germany rearmed and remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, and powers pursued self-interest.OCR
The reunification of Germany: The fall of the Wall paved the way for the formal reunification of Germany in 1990.Pearson Edexcel
The role of chance and weather: The 'Protestant Wind' forced the fleeing Spanish fleet around Scotland and Ireland, where fierce storms wrecked many ships, sealing the English triumph.Pearson Edexcel
The role of intellectuals: Intellectuals heavily criticising communist rule by spring 1957, using posters on university campuses, rallies and articles.Pearson Edexcel
The role of Parliament: Previously called infrequently and primarily to grant taxes, it was transformed from a temporary advisory body into a permanent, essential partner in the…Pearson Edexcel
The role of the Chief Minister: Thomas Cromwell orchestrated the marriage, seeking an alliance with the Schmalkaldic League and arranging the match with Anne, sister of the Duke of Cleves.Pearson Edexcel
The role of the media in civil rights: Televised violence against peaceful marchers outraged the nation, prompting Johnson to introduce and sign the Voting Rights Act of 1965.Pearson Edexcel
The role of the Queen Consort: Jane's influence was subtle but significant, though she had very little political power and was publicly rebuked by Henry when she tried to intervene.Pearson Edexcel
The role of the United Nations: A resolution condemning the Soviet actions was proposed but vetoed by the Soviet Union, rendering the UN powerless.Pearson Edexcel
The rural economy: The countryside was the centre of the medieval economy, dominated by the manorial system.Pearson Edexcel
The shifting strategies of Mao Zedong: Mao unleashed the Red Guards to gain power but used the PLA to crush them when they threatened state stability, then launched the rustication campaign to…Pearson Edexcel
The slighting after the Civil War: Deliberate damage ordered by Parliament to make parts of the castle unusable and indefensible after the Civil War.OCR
The SS: Led by Heinrich Himmler, it grew from Hitler's bodyguard into the primary instrument of internal security, overseeing all police forces.Pearson Edexcel
The terror state: Elements including the SA, SS, Gestapo, SD, courts and police, each with a distinct role rather than being interchangeable.OCR
The Versailles Peace Settlement: Imposed reparations, territorial loss and military limits on Germany, and caused resentment.OCR
The Vietnam War and US involvement: A confrontation that drew in the United States and ended with its withdrawal in 1973 and the reunification of Vietnam in 1975.OCR
The Wall as a symbol of a divided Europe: It became a symbol of a divided Europe, symbolising and hardening division rather than ending the Cold War.OCR
The Wall Street Crash and its global spread: The depression began with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 in the USA and spread as American loans were recalled and world trade shrank.OCR
The weakness of the South Vietnamese regime: Diem's unpopularity and the Buddhist crisis weakened the south, and Diem was overthrown in 1963.OCR
The welfare state: Part of the increased role of the state from 1945 to c.1980, expanding what government did and how far it reached into people's lives.OCR
Theories of Disease: People still believed in miasma, astrology and divine punishment as causes of the plague.Pearson Edexcel
Theory of Opposites: Galen expanded the humoral theory with this, suggesting treatments to restore balance, like using a cold remedy for a fever.Pearson Edexcel
Theory of the Four Humours: Developed by Hippocrates, it posited that the body contained four liquids and that illness occurred when these were unbalanced.Pearson Edexcel
Third Crusade: A campaign in which Richard I's primary objective was to recapture Jerusalem from Saladin, but which ended without its main prize.Pearson Edexcel
Thomas Jefferson: The primary author of the Declaration, who synthesised Enlightenment ideals and colonial grievances into a unifying document.Pearson Edexcel
Thought control: Enforcing ideological conformity through intense measures, requiring citizens to study Maoist theory and participate in struggle sessions to confess…Pearson Edexcel
Three Antis: Movement launched by Mao in 1951 that targeted corruption, waste and bureaucracy within the party and government, aiming to discipline officials and remove…Pearson Edexcel
Timber Culture Act (1873): Aimed to solve the lack of wood by offering an additional 160 acres if trees were planted on a quarter of it.Pearson Edexcel
Tithing: A group of ten men who were responsible for each other's behaviour, and if one broke the law the others had to bring him to court.Pearson Edexcel
Tithing System: A medieval system of collective responsibility in which every male over twelve was placed in a group of ten men (a tithing).OCR
Tlatoani: The supreme ruler of the Aztec Empire, literally meaning 'he who speaks' in Nahuatl.OCR
Tlaxcalan allies: Indigenous supporters whose role was to support the Spanish siege after Cortés regrouped his forces in Tlaxcala.Pearson Edexcel
Tobacco: The crucial cash crop, particularly for Virginia, driving plantation economies and generating immense wealth.Pearson Edexcel
Tolpuddle Martyrs: Six labourers transported to Australia in 1834 under an obscure law against secret oaths, rather than for forming a trade union, which was legal.Pearson Edexcel
Total war: The mobilisation of the whole population and economy, not just the armed forces.OCR
Totalitarianism: A system of government where the state is centralized, dictatorial, and requires complete subservience from its citizens.OCR
Town watchmen: Men who patrolled streets at night, carrying lanterns and bells, to deter criminals and arrest vagabonds.Pearson Edexcel
Trade and economic growth: The gains expanded trade, especially in North America.OCR
Trade and economic wealth: Silver and gold from Peru were shipped to Panama, carried overland to the Caribbean coast and loaded onto galleons bound for Spain, making Panama the economic…Pearson Edexcel
Trade monopoly: The strict control of commerce that the House of Trade ensured Spain maintained over its overseas territories.Pearson Edexcel
Trade union power and the state: The Miners’ Strike of 1984–1985 set a powerful trade union against a government that used police and law to win, testing where sovereignty lay.OCR
Trade unions and the Durban strike 1973: Trade unions grew into a powerful force, shown when thousands of African workers struck over pay and conditions.OCR
Traditional treatments: Most care occurred at home, where women used traditional herbal remedies passed down through generations.Pearson Edexcel
Traditionalism vs. Modernity: Changes in women's position faced fierce opposition from conservative groups who believed women should adhere to traditional roles.Pearson Edexcel
Transfer of power from Saxons to Normans: Power transferred gradually at all levels of society, with Norman lords replacing Anglo-Saxon earls, land granted to followers for military service, castles…OCR
Transition of power: The abdication of the Kaiser led to a new republic being hastily declared.Pearson Edexcel
Transport and terrain: Moving the wounded involved stretcher bearers navigating treacherous trenches, followed by horse-drawn and later motor ambulances, with horse ambulances…Pearson Edexcel
Transportation: A punishment introduced under James I in which criminals were sent to the American colonies to perform hard labour, offering an alternative to execution while…OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Treason: A crime against the monarch or state that evolved as monarchs sought to protect their power against religious and political threats.Pearson Edexcel
Treason Act: Made it a capital offence to deny Henry's supremacy, even in words, effectively silencing dissent through fear and legal persecution.Pearson Edexcel
Treason and assassination: The plots shared key features: aiming to assassinate Elizabeth, crown Mary, Queen of Scots, and restore Catholicism.Pearson Edexcel
Treason and execution: Cromwell gathered evidence and extracted confessions of adultery and treason, providing Henry with legal grounds for Anne's execution.Pearson Edexcel
Treatment of asylum seekers: Measures including dispersal around the country, detention in some cases and restrictions on working while claims were decided.OCR
Treaty of Jaffa: The 1192 agreement that left Jerusalem under Muslim control but allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims access to the city, ending the crusade.Pearson Edexcel
Treaty of Nonsuch: The 1585 agreement that marked a turning point, as Elizabeth agreed to send military assistance to the Dutch Protestant rebels.Pearson Edexcel
Treaty of Paris (1763): Ended the French and Indian War, transferring French Canada and land east of the Mississippi to Britain.Pearson Edexcel
Treaty of Washington: The formal peace agreement of March 1979 in which Egypt recognised Israel and Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula.Pearson Edexcel
Tribal sovereignty: The treaty completely ignored Indigenous sovereignty and handed their lands over to the United States.Pearson Edexcel
Tribute and Danegeld: Payment of tribute or Danegeld, which counts as a response to the raids rather than an impact.OCR
Tribute System: The mechanism by which the Aztec Empire extracted wealth from conquered peoples.OCR
Triple Alliance: The political and military alliance of the three city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan that formed the basis of the Aztec Empire.OCR
Trotsky: His leadership was pivotal, transforming the Red Army into a disciplined force and using his armoured train to boost morale across vast fronts.Pearson Edexcel
Truman Doctrine: The 1947 policy that committed the US to support free peoples resisting subjugation, directly targeting communist expansion in Greece and Turkey.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Tsar's absence: Being at military headquarters left him isolated and out of touch, unable to grasp the severity of the situation in the capital.Pearson Edexcel
Tudor government: Government relied on the King's Council, Parliament (called rarely to grant taxes), and regional networks of Justices of the Peace.Pearson Edexcel
turning point: Saratoga (1777) was a turning point, proving colonial military capability and convincing France to formally ally with the Americans.Pearson Edexcel
Types of historical evidence: Contracts, architect plans, contemporary drawings and aerial photographs are the kinds of evidence historians use.OCR
Types of immigrant housing: Includes lodging houses, rented rooms, overcrowding and later council provision available to immigrants.OCR
Types of work open to immigrants: Factory work, the clothing trades, dock and transport labour, building work and small shops were the kinds of jobs commonly open to newcomers.OCR

U

UN Resolution 242: Passed by the UN Security Council after the 1967 war, it established the 'land for peace' formula and called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories…Pearson Edexcel
UN-brokered ceasefire: The agreement brokered by the UN on 10 June 1967 that ended the conflict.Pearson Edexcel
Undeserving poor: Those deemed lazy, as opposed to the deserving poor and the able-bodied unemployed.Pearson Edexcel
UNEF: The UN Emergency Force peacekeepers whom Nasser expelled as one of his three key escalatory steps.Pearson Edexcel
Unintended consequences of policy: Gorbachev wanted to reform and strengthen communism, not dismantle it; the total collapse was an unintended consequence.Pearson Edexcel
United Arab Republic: The short-lived union with Syria in 1958, culminating from Nasser's leadership aimed at uniting Arab states.Pearson Edexcel
United Arab Republic (UAR): A political union between Egypt and Syria formed in 1958, aiming to encircle Israel and unify the Arab world.Pearson Edexcel
Untermenschen: Literally 'sub-humans'.OCR
Urban environment: The local context of Whitechapel was dominated by appalling housing problems and extreme overcrowding in slum rookeries and lodging houses.Pearson Edexcel
Urban settlement: The pattern of migrants gravitating towards urban centres like London and Birmingham for employment, later dispersing into suburbs and wider regional areas.Pearson Edexcel
Urban tension and paranoia: Extreme paranoia regarding slave revolts in urban colonial settings, seen when panicked authorities suspected a coordinated uprising in New York City.Pearson Edexcel
Urban Unrest: Severe race riots that erupted in major US cities between 1965 and 1967, sparked by incidents of police brutality but rooted in deep-seated anger over poor…Pearson Edexcel
Urbanisation: Rapid industrialisation drew town workers into overcrowded cities like Petrograd, where living conditions were appalling.Pearson Edexcel
Urbanisation and housing: Rapid urbanisation led to severe overcrowding, with families often sharing single rooms in communal apartments and facing chronic shortages of food and basic…Pearson Edexcel
Urbanisation and industrialisation: The Industrial Revolution caused a massive change, shifting settlement from rural areas to expanding industrial cities like Manchester.Pearson Edexcel
US aid: Financial assistance from the US government and private American Jewish communities that helped stabilise the economy, fund infrastructure and absorb…Pearson Edexcel
US mediation: American diplomatic involvement that brokered early steps towards peace and demonstrated its effectiveness in the region.Pearson Edexcel
US military tactics in Vietnam: Bombing campaigns, chemical defoliants and napalm, search-and-destroy missions, helicopter mobility and the strategic hamlet programme.OCR
Using evidence to answer an enquiry: Matching the type of evidence to the question being asked and considering what each source can and cannot reveal.OCR
Using place names to fix a site on a map: Place it by county, region and nearest towns rather than by a vague direction such as 'in the north'.OCR
USSR: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, set up in 1922, which united Russia with other Soviet republics under a federal structure while power remained…Pearson Edexcel

V

Vaccination: Edward Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccination in 1798, which used cowpox and replaced the dangerous practice of inoculation.Pearson Edexcel
Vagabondage: The wandering poor, whose numbers grew through economic pressures, population growth and the closure of monasteries, and whom the authorities feared as a…Pearson Edexcel
Vagabonds: A group whose spreading of disease and inciting of rebellion drove policy changes through fear.Pearson Edexcel
Valor Ecclesiasticus: Cromwell's 1535 survey of monastic wealth used to assess houses for dissolution.OCR
Varied experiences and status: Status varied from paid servants to enslaved people, and some were baptised and recorded in parish registers.OCR
Viceroyalty: A colonial territory governed by a viceroy — a representative of the Spanish Crown — with full administrative, judicial, and military authority.OCR
Viceroys: Royal representatives with supreme executive, military, and judicial authority in the Americas, sent to govern established territories.Pearson Edexcel
Victoria Cross: Award produced by the Crimean War in 1856.OCR
Vietcong: Guerrilla fighters in the South who posed an increasing threat, controlling large rural areas and successfully attacking ARVN forces.Pearson Edexcel
Vietcong guerrilla tactics: Guerrilla warfare, ambush, booby traps, tunnel networks, close ties with villagers and use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail.OCR
Vietnamisation: Policy introduced by President Nixon in 1969 that aimed to shift the burden of combat from US troops to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam.OCR, Pearson Edexcel
Vigilantism: The Whitechapel Vigilance Committee offered rewards and conducted independent patrols, often hindering the official investigation.Pearson Edexcel
Viking raids 790–1066: Attacks on Anglo-Saxon England between 790 and 1066 whose impact and the responses they provoked are covered by this depth topic.OCR
Violence and persecution: The coronation of Richard I in 1189 triggered a wave of violence, sparking pogroms that spread from London to York, where 150 Jews died at Clifford's Tower in…Pearson Edexcel
Violent opposition: Severe Ku Klux Klan violence faced by the riders, often with local police complicity, most notoriously at Anniston, Alabama, where a mob firebombed a bus and…Pearson Edexcel
Violent resistance to civil rights: A violent riot by white segregationists resulted in two deaths and required federal troops to restore order.Pearson Edexcel
Visitation of the Monasteries: Gathered evidence of poor discipline to justify closing houses.OCR
Volksgemeinschaft: The 'people's community'.OCR
Voter registration and disenfranchisement: Freedom Summer was a voter registration drive aimed at increasing the historically low number of registered African American voters in Mississippi, exposing…Pearson Edexcel
Voting rights and political empowerment: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned literacy tests and provided federal oversight of elections, transforming Southern politics.Pearson Edexcel

W

Walking on Two Legs: Mao's belief in developing both agriculture and industry simultaneously.Pearson Edexcel
War Communism: The policy whose devastation, together with the Kronstadt Mutiny, led Lenin to introduce the New Economic Policy in 1921.Pearson Edexcel
War Guilt Clause: Article 231, a key term of the Treaty of Versailles that outraged Germans.Pearson Edexcel
War of Attrition: A conflict from 1967 to 1970, involving artillery duels and commando raids between Egypt and Israel, caused by the continued dispute over the Suez Canal.Pearson Edexcel
Wardens of the Marches and days of truce: Wardens on both sides held days of truce to settle cross-border disputes, yet central governments in London and Edinburgh struggled to control local lords.OCR
wardships: One of the aggressive financial demands John used to raise funds to win back his French lands.Pearson Edexcel
Wars of the Roses: Dynastic conflicts between the houses of Lancaster and York over the crown between 1455 and 1485.OCR
Warsaw Pact: A Soviet-led military alliance of Eastern Bloc countries, formed in 1955 following West Germany's admission into NATO, serving as a direct counterweight to…Pearson Edexcel
Wartime agriculture: The 'Dig for Victory' campaign repurposed public spaces such as Victoria Park and the Tower of London moat into allotments, increasing food production.Pearson Edexcel
Wartime disruption: The severe interference with daily life and work in London, including the destruction of homes and workplaces, though theatre and other leisure activities…Pearson Edexcel
Water rights: A source of early disputes between ranchers and homesteaders, alongside crop damage, as competing land uses sparked early tensions.Pearson Edexcel
Water supply and water defences: A castle needed access to water, and Kenilworth has later water defences, which should be distinguished from strategic reasons for location.OCR
Weak royal authority and baronial power: Both breakdowns involved barons exploiting or resisting weak royal authority within the stated dates.OCR
Weakening of the League of Nations: Member states focused on national recovery rather than collective security, so the depression weakened the League of Nations.OCR
Weaknesses of the Whites: The Whites were geographically divided, lacked a unified command, and suffered from poor coordination between generals.Pearson Edexcel
Wealth and land ownership: Henry VIII gained vast wealth and land, though he quickly sold much to fund wars, and the gentry and nobility purchased monastic lands cheaply.Pearson Edexcel
Wealth and role of the church: The church owned land, collected tithes and provided parish worship, festivals and charity, shaping ordinary people's routines and beliefs.OCR
Weapons technology and injury: Devastating injuries inflicted by high-explosive artillery, shrapnel and rifle fire, which caused massive tissue damage.Pearson Edexcel
Weimar stability and fragility 1925–1928: The period had strengths such as economic recovery, foreign policy successes and cultural life, alongside weaknesses such as fragile coalition governments,…OCR
Welfare providers and their services: Includes friendly societies, charities, religious bodies, trade unions and, later, state support such as poor relief or national insurance.OCR
Wergild: A system of compensation fines paid directly to victims or their families to prevent blood feuds, with the amount depending on social status.Pearson Edexcel
Westward expansion: Settlement of the West justified by Manifest Destiny, rooted in religious and cultural superiority.Pearson Edexcel
White resistance: Massive opposition sparked by the ruling, including the Southern Manifesto, while the vague 'Brown II' ruling allowed states to delay integration.Pearson Edexcel
White supremacist violence: Volunteers faced severe intimidation from the Ku Klux Klan and local police, who often colluded with the KKK to terrorise activists.Pearson Edexcel
Wind pumps: New technology used to access deep groundwater.Pearson Edexcel
Witchcraft: A legally defined secular crime made a capital offence by the 1542 Witchcraft Act, driven by religious changes and economic tensions.Pearson Edexcel
Witchfinder General: The self-styled title of Matthew Hopkins, who led intense witch-hunts across East Anglia between 1645 and 1647.Pearson Edexcel
Women and government: Women's rights movements and the Sheppard-Towner Act, which funded maternal and infant health care.OCR
Women and the war effort: Women's contribution to the war effort is a distinct theme of the impact of the Second World War on US society.OCR
Women in the workforce: Rapid industrialisation forced millions of women into the workforce, taking on heavy industrial jobs and agricultural roles, yet they rarely achieved…Pearson Edexcel
Women's Political Council: The organisation that initiated a one-day boycott of the city buses.Pearson Edexcel
Women's suffrage: The struggle for the vote for women and the reasons why it was won for some women in 1918.OCR

X

X-rays: A development following Wilhelm Röntgen's 1895 discovery which allowed doctors to diagnose internal injuries without invasive surgery, though early machines…Pearson Edexcel

Y

Yalta and Potsdam conferences: Held in February 1945 and July–August 1945, they set out agreements on the future of Germany and Europe, but growing disagreement widened the split.OCR
Youth involvement: Nine black students were admitted under the local school board's plan to gradually comply with the Brown v.Pearson Edexcel
Youth justice: The treatment of young offenders became specialised, with Borstals and Youth Offender Institutions focusing on education rather than harsh punishment.Pearson Edexcel
Youth resistance and the Soweto uprising 1976: Young people became central, above all in the students' uprising against the use of Afrikaans in schools.OCR

Z

Zamindar: A local, hereditary landlord who held rights over a piece of land and collected revenue from the peasants.OCR

Other terms

'democracy wall': A brief outlet for dissent that the Party then repressed.OCR
'Hue and Cry' newspaper: Started by John Fielding in 1772 to pioneer intelligence sharing.Pearson Edexcel
'land for peace': The formula established by UN Resolution 242, calling for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in the recent conflict and acknowledgement of the…Pearson Edexcel
1736 Witchcraft Act: This law ended executions for witchcraft, redefining it as a crime of fraud rather than a supernatural offence.Pearson Edexcel
1823 Gaols Act: Introduced to improve prison conditions by paying gaolers and separating prisoners.Pearson Edexcel

Where these terms come from

Each definition is one we publish on a History GCSE topic page or study guide. Open a term to see how each exam board words it and which topic it belongs to. For the full course, go to History revision or the glossary for every subject.

Revise History with these terms

Create a free account to practise exam questions and get feedback on your answers.

Start free

A week of Premium from your first lesson · Then the free plan continues · No card, no charge

History topics

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Other terms

Where these terms come from

Revise History with these terms

Cookies on MasteryMind