1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 – The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History
Test yourself on 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 – The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only) with AQA A-Level practice questions.
7 days Premium · Then free forever · No card, no charge
1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 – The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only) explained
The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) aimed to prevent the Catholic Duke of York (later James II) from inheriting the throne, driven by Whig fears of popery and arbitrary government.
Read the full explanation
Methods included mass petitions, pamphlets, and parliamentary bills. It failed because Charles II skilfully dissolved parliaments, secured French subsidies to rule independently, and exploited fears of another civil war to rally Tory support. Upon his accession in 1685, James II pursued absolutist policies, expanding a standing army and using his dispensing power (e.g., Godden v Hales) to appoint Catholics to military and civic posts. His Declarations of Indulgence aimed to restore Catholic influence, alienating the Anglican establishment and precipitating his downfall.
The ‘Glorious Revolution’: causes and nature; its consolidation in England, Scotland and Ireland
The 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688 was caused by James II's pro-Catholic policies, the birth of a Catholic heir, and the invitation by the Immortal Seven to William of Orange. Its nature is debated: traditionalists view it as a bloodless, conservative defence of the ancient constitution, while revisionists highlight its radical constitutional shifts and the violence involved. Consolidation varied geographically. In England, the Bill of Rights (1689) and Mutiny Act secured a constitutional monarchy. In Scotland, the Claim of Right abolished episcopacy, but Jacobite resistance persisted (e.g., Killiecrankie). In Ireland, consolidation was brutally achieved through the Williamite War, culminating in the Battle of the Boyne and the Treaty of Limerick, cementing Protestant Ascendancy.
Divisions within the Political Nation and the emergence of Whigs and Tories and their impact
The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) fractured the Political Nation, catalysing the emergence of the first formal political parties: the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs, led by Shaftesbury, championed parliamentary sovereignty, Protestant dissenters, and the exclusion of the Catholic James, Duke of York, from the succession. Conversely, the Tories defended the divine right of kings, strict Anglicanism, and the strict hereditary succession, fearing that exclusion would spark another civil war. This division profoundly impacted late Stuart politics, transforming parliamentary debates into partisan conflicts. Their rivalry shaped the Glorious Revolution and the subsequent constitutional settlement, embedding a two-party system that dictated government policy, patronage, and the balance of power between Crown and Parliament.
Religious changes: religious toleration and changes to the position of Anglicans, Protestants and Catholics
The period 1678–1702 witnessed profound religious changes, shifting from strict Anglican uniformity to limited religious toleration. Initially, the Anglican Church maintained a rigid monopoly, penalising Catholics and Protestant dissenters through the Test Acts. James II's attempts to grant broad toleration via Declarations of Indulgence alienated the Anglican establishment, precipitating the Glorious Revolution. The subsequent Toleration Act of 1689 fundamentally altered the religious landscape. It granted freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters, legally recognising their position, though they remained barred from public office. Conversely, the position of Catholics deteriorated; they were explicitly excluded from toleration and the royal succession, cementing Anglican dominance.
Government under William and Mary: the importance of political parties and ministers; the changing influence of Crown and Parliament and the reasons for the development of limited monarchy
The government of William and Mary saw a profound shift towards a limited monarchy, driven by the financial demands of the Nine Years' War. To fund this conflict, William became reliant on Parliament, fundamentally changing their respective influence. Parliament leveraged this dependency to secure regular sessions through the 1694 Triennial Act and control over royal revenue via the Civil List. Consequently, political parties and ministers gained unprecedented importance. William initially attempted to balance Whigs and Tories but increasingly relied on the 'Junto Whigs'—ministers like Montagu and Somers—who could guarantee parliamentary majorities and secure war funding, cementing the necessity of party management in government.
The condition of Britain and its monarchy by 1702: the significance of the Act of Settlement; the balance of power between Crown and Parliament; the condition of the Church of England and non-conformism and Catholicism
By 1702, Britain had transformed into a state where the balance of power decisively favoured Parliament over the Crown. The 1701 Act of Settlement was highly significant, bypassing numerous Catholic claimants to vest the succession in the Protestant House of Hanover, whilst imposing strict constitutional limits on future monarchs, such as requiring parliamentary consent to leave the realm. Religiously, the Church of England remained established, but its monopoly was broken. The Toleration Act allowed Protestant non-conformists to worship freely, though they remained excluded from public office by the Test Acts. Conversely, Catholicism faced severe penal laws, reflecting deep-seated fears of Jacobitism and French absolutism.
Your focus
- Analyse the aims and methods of the Whigs during the Exclusion Crisis.
- Evaluate the factors that led to the failure of the Exclusion Crisis and the triumph of Charles II.
- Assess the extent to which James II's policies represented an attempt to establish absolutism and restore Catholicism.
Show all 18 objectives
- Explain the long-term and short-term causes that led to the Glorious Revolution.
- Evaluate the historical debate surrounding the nature of the Glorious Revolution.
- Compare the methods and impacts of consolidating the Revolution across England, Scotland, and Ireland.
- Analyse the causes of the division within the Political Nation during the Exclusion Crisis.
- Compare and contrast the fundamental political and religious ideologies of the early Whigs and Tories.
- Evaluate the impact of the Whig-Tory rivalry on the constitutional development of late Stuart Britain.
- Trace the evolution of religious toleration from the Exclusion Crisis to the Act of Settlement.
- Analyse the changing legal and social position of Protestant dissenters and Catholics between 1678 and 1702.
- Evaluate the impact of the Toleration Act 1689 on the monopoly of the Anglican Church.
- Explain the reasons for the development of a limited monarchy under William and Mary.
- Analyse the changing balance of influence between the Crown and Parliament between 1689 and 1702.
- Evaluate the importance of political parties and key ministers in managing government business.
- Assess the significance of the Act of Settlement in redefining the balance of power between Crown and Parliament.
- Evaluate the condition and authority of the Church of England by the end of William III's reign.
- Compare the legal and social conditions of Protestant non-conformists and Catholics in Britain by 1702.
1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 – The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only) exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the aims of the Whigs during the Exclusion Crisis, focusing on preventing a Catholic succession and arbitrary rule.
- Evaluate the methods used by Exclusionists, such as parliamentary bills, propaganda, and the mobilisation of the London populace.
- Analyse the reasons for the failure of Exclusion, including Charles II's financial independence via French subsidies and the Tory royalist backlash.
- Assess James II's attempts to establish absolutism through the expansion of the standing army and the use of dispensing and suspending powers.
- Examine James II's religious policies, particularly the Declarations of Indulgence and the appointment of Catholics, as attempts to restore Catholic power.
- Identify the short-term causes of the Revolution, including the trial of the Seven Bishops and the birth of James Edward Stuart.
- Evaluate the nature of the Revolution, contrasting the Whig view of a peaceful, conservative settlement with the reality of a foreign invasion and radical constitutional change.
- Analyse the consolidation of the Revolution in England through key legislation like the Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and the financial settlement.
- Assess the violent consolidation in Ireland, focusing on the Williamite War, the Battle of the Boyne, and the subsequent penal laws establishing Protestant dominance.
- Examine the Scottish response, including the Claim of Right, the abolition of bishops, and the suppression of early Jacobite uprisings.
- Identify the Exclusion Crisis as the primary catalyst for the formal division of the Political Nation into Whig and Tory factions.
- Explain the core Whig ideology, including support for parliamentary power, contractual government, and religious toleration for Protestant dissenters.
- Explain the core Tory ideology, focusing on the divine right of kings, non-resistance, and the monopoly of the Anglican Church.
- Evaluate the impact of this partisan division on the Crown's ability to govern, including Charles II's reliance on Tory support during his personal rule (1681–1685).
- Assess how the Whig-Tory divide influenced the Glorious Revolution and the subsequent drafting of the Bill of Rights.
- Analyse the initial dominance of the Anglican Church and the enforcement of the Clarendon Code against non-conformists.
- Evaluate James II's use of the royal prerogative to issue Declarations of Indulgence, aiming to improve the position of Catholics and dissenters.
- Assess the terms and limitations of the Toleration Act 1689, noting that it granted freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters but not political equality.
- Explain the deteriorating legal and social position of Catholics, culminating in their exclusion from the throne via the Act of Settlement 1701.
- Discuss how the concept of a comprehensive Church of England was ultimately abandoned in favour of a fragmented Protestant landscape.
- Explain how the financial pressures of the Nine Years' War forced William III to summon Parliament annually, shifting the balance of power.
- Assess the role of the 1694 Triennial Act in ensuring regular elections, which intensified party political rivalry between Whigs and Tories.
- Evaluate the significance of the Junto Whigs in managing Parliament and facilitating the establishment of the Bank of England to fund the Crown.
- Analyse how the 1698 Civil List Act restricted the monarch's independent financial power, contributing to the development of a limited monarchy.
- Evaluate the constitutional significance of the 1701 Act of Settlement in asserting parliamentary control over the royal succession.
- Assess the balance of power by 1702, noting Parliament's control over finance and the army versus the monarch's retained prerogative over foreign policy.
- Analyse the condition of the Church of England, highlighting its loss of a coercive monopoly over Protestant worship following the Toleration Act.
- Explain the contrasting conditions of religious minorities, with non-conformists gaining limited toleration while Catholics faced intensified penal legislation.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When discussing the failure of Exclusion, contrast the strengths of Charles II's political manoeuvring with the radicalism of the Whigs that alienated moderate support.
- 💡Use specific legal cases, such as Godden v Hales (1686), to demonstrate how James II manipulated the judiciary to enforce his dispensing powers.
- 💡Link James II's religious objectives directly to his absolutist methods, showing how his use of the royal prerogative to bypass Parliament alienated his natural Tory allies.
- 💡Use the concept of a 'British' revolution to compare and contrast how William III secured his authority differently across the three kingdoms.
- 💡When evaluating the 'nature' of the revolution, explicitly contrast the traditional Whig historiography with modern revisionist interpretations of a Dutch invasion.
- 💡Memorise key turning points in Ireland and Scotland, such as the Siege of Derry and the Glencoe Massacre, to provide concrete evidence of violent consolidation.
- 💡Use the Exclusion Crisis as a structural pivot when evaluating the origins of the Whig and Tory factions.
- 💡Contrast the political philosophies of Locke (associated with Whig ideals) and Filmer (associated with Tory ideals) to demonstrate depth of knowledge.
- 💡When discussing the impact of these divisions, explicitly link partisan conflicts to the shifting balance of power between the Crown and Parliament.
- 💡Always distinguish between freedom of worship and political equality when discussing the Toleration Act 1689.
- 💡Use specific legislation, such as the Test Acts and the Act of Settlement, to evidence changes in the position of different religious groups.
- 💡Link religious changes directly to political crises, demonstrating how fear of Catholicism drove constitutional changes.
- 💡Use the Nine Years' War as the primary explanatory factor when discussing why William III conceded power to Parliament.
- 💡Name specific ministers, such as Charles Montagu or Lord Somers, to demonstrate precise knowledge of the Junto Whigs' importance.
- 💡Contrast the Crown's financial independence under Charles II and James II with William's reliance on the Civil List to highlight the changing influence of Parliament.
- 💡Use the Act of Settlement as a key piece of evidence to demonstrate how Parliament permanently altered the balance of power by dictating the succession.
- 💡When discussing religion, explicitly contrast the legal status of Protestant non-conformists with that of Catholics to show a nuanced understanding of toleration.
- 💡Link the harsh treatment of Catholics by 1702 directly to political fears surrounding the exiled James II and the Jacobite threat.
Common Mistakes
- Error: Confusing the aims of the Exclusion Crisis with a desire to establish a republic. Correction: Clarify that the Whigs primarily aimed to alter the succession to a Protestant heir, such as the Duke of Monmouth or Mary, not to abolish the monarchy.
- Error: Assuming James II wanted to forcibly convert the entire country to Catholicism immediately. Correction: Explain that James initially sought civic equality for Catholics and Dissenters to gradually restore Catholic influence and power in public life.
- Error: Stating that Charles II surrendered to the Exclusionists. Correction: Emphasise that Charles II successfully defeated the Exclusion bills by repeatedly dissolving Parliament and relying on French financial support.
- Error: Describing the Glorious Revolution as entirely bloodless. Correction: Specify that while largely bloodless in England, the consolidation in Scotland and particularly Ireland involved significant warfare and casualties.
- Error: Assuming the Bill of Rights created a modern democracy. Correction: Clarify that the Bill of Rights established a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty, but the franchise remained highly restricted to the landowning elite.
- Error: Treating the consolidation in England, Scotland, and Ireland as identical processes. Correction: Differentiate the constitutional and relatively peaceful settlement in England from the military conquests and religious subjugation required in Ireland and Scotland.
- Error: Claiming the Whigs and Tories were modern, highly organised political parties with formal membership. Correction: Describe them as loose factions or groupings of like-minded individuals within the Political Nation, rather than modern political parties.
- Error: Stating that the Tories supported James II unconditionally throughout his reign. Correction: Note that Tory support for James II collapsed when his pro-Catholic policies directly threatened the Anglican Church's monopoly.
- Error: Assuming the Political Nation included the majority of the population. Correction: Define the Political Nation as the wealthy, landowning elite and urban merchants who held the franchise and local offices.
- Error: Stating that the Toleration Act 1689 granted full religious freedom to everyone. Correction: Specify that the Act only granted freedom of worship to Trinitarian Protestant dissenters, explicitly excluding Catholics and Unitarians, and kept the Test Acts in place.
- Error: Confusing Protestant dissenters with Anglicans. Correction: Clearly distinguish between conforming Anglicans (who accepted the Church of England) and Protestant dissenters or non-conformists (such as Quakers, Baptists, and Presbyterians) who worshipped outside it.
- Error: Claiming James II's religious policies were universally welcomed by Protestant dissenters. Correction: Note that many dissenters viewed James II's Declarations of Indulgence with suspicion, fearing it was a Trojan horse to establish Catholic absolutism.
- Claiming the Glorious Revolution immediately created a modern constitutional monarchy; correction, emphasise that limited monarchy developed gradually due to wartime financial necessity rather than a single event in 1688.
- Stating that William III only appointed Whig ministers; correction, note that William initially tried to balance his ministries with both Tories and Whigs before relying on the Junto Whigs.
- Confusing the Triennial Act of 1694 with the 1641 Act; correction, specify that the 1694 Act mandated elections every three years, fundamentally changing party politics and parliamentary influence.
- Asserting that the Toleration Act granted full religious equality; correction, clarify that non-conformists were still barred from political office by the Test Acts and Catholics were entirely excluded from toleration.
- Claiming the monarch had no power by 1702; correction, explain that while Parliament controlled finance, the Crown still directed foreign policy and chose ministers.
- Stating the Act of Settlement only dealt with the succession; correction, detail the specific constitutional restrictions it placed on the monarch, such as the independence of the judiciary.