1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only) – The epoch of palace coups, 1725–1762 — AQA A-Level History
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1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only) – The epoch of palace coups, 1725–1762 explained
Peter the Great’s death in 1725 left a complex legacy that defined Russian governance and society.
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He established the Service State through the 1722 Table of Ranks, compelling the gentry into lifelong military or civil administration, fundamentally altering their relationship with the autocracy. The Church was subordinated to the state via the Holy Synod (1721), replacing the Patriarchate and turning clergy into state officials. Socially, the divide between the Westernised gentry and the enserfed peasantry deepened, as serfdom was entrenched through the poll tax and conscription. Internationally, Peter transformed Russia into a major European power, securing Baltic access through the Great Northern War, which forced his successors to maintain a costly, active role in European diplomacy and conflicts.
Disputed successions and the role of the Supreme State Council and the Preobrazhensky Regiment
Peter the Great’s failure to name an heir under his 1722 succession law triggered the 'Epoch of Palace Coups' (1725–1762), characterised by chronic instability and disputed successions. Power vacuums were frequently exploited by elite factions. The Supreme State Council, formed in 1726 by Menshikov, attempted to monopolise power, most notably by drafting the 'Conditions' in 1730 to limit Empress Anna’s autocratic authority, though this oligarchic bid ultimately failed. Crucially, the Preobrazhensky Regiment and other elite Guards units became the ultimate arbiters of power. Composed of nobles, these regiments orchestrated coups, such as the installation of Catherine I in 1725 and Elizabeth in 1741, demonstrating that autocracy relied heavily on military backing.
Tsarina Elizabeth: accession to the throne; education and Westernisation; legal reforms; taxation
Tsarina Elizabeth seized power in 1741 through a bloodless palace coup supported by the Preobrazhensky Guards, ending the turbulent rule of Anna Leopoldovna. Her reign accelerated Westernisation, notably through the founding of Moscow University in 1755 and the Academy of Arts in 1757, which fostered a new educated Russian elite. Elizabeth initiated significant legal reforms, most famously abolishing the death penalty, though her new law code remained incomplete. To fund her lavish court and military campaigns like the Seven Years' War, she reformed taxation by increasing indirect taxes on everyday goods such as salt and alcohol, which disproportionately burdened the peasantry while protecting noble wealth.
Social developments: the redefinition of the Service State; serfdom and serf unrest
During the epoch of palace coups, the Petrine Service State was significantly redefined as the nobility gradually emancipated themselves from compulsory state service. This culminated in Peter III's 1762 Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility, which legally ended mandatory service. Conversely, the condition of the peasantry deteriorated as serfdom became more entrenched. Nobles gained greater control over their serfs, including the right to exile them to Siberia. This widening social chasm and increasing exploitation sparked frequent serf unrest and violent uprisings, driven by crushing taxation, conscription, and the brutal enforcement of noble authority, laying the groundwork for the massive Pugachev Rebellion later in the century.
Foreign affairs: intervention in Poland; failure to secure the Crimea; involvement in the Seven Years War
Between 1725 and 1762, Russian foreign policy aimed to expand influence, yielding mixed results. Intervention in the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1735) successfully placed the Russian-backed Augustus III on the throne, securing western borders against French influence. Conversely, the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) ended in frustration. Despite costly victories under Münnich, Russian forces withdrew from the Crimea due to disease and logistical failures. The subsequent Treaty of Niš (1739) confirmed Russia's failure to secure the Crimea or a Black Sea fleet. Finally, involvement in the Seven Years War (1756–1763) demonstrated Russian military might at Kunersdorf. However, Peter III's sudden withdrawal in 1762 squandered these gains, saving Prussia from collapse and angering the military.
Russia by 1762: the extent to which Petrine reforms survived; the accession of Catherine the Great
By 1762, Peter the Great's legacy remained the foundation of the Russian state, though his reforms experienced varying survival. The Table of Ranks and the Senate endured, cementing bureaucratic administration, while the military retained its conscription model. However, the obligation of lifelong noble service was eroded, culminating in Peter III's 1762 Manifesto freeing nobles from compulsory service. The epoch of palace coups concluded with the accession of Catherine the Great in July 1762. Capitalising on the military's resentment towards Peter III's pro-Prussian policies, Catherine orchestrated a coup with the support of the Orlov brothers and the Guards regiments, securing the throne and ending decades of political instability.
Your focus
- Explain how the Table of Ranks established the Service State and altered the role of the gentry.
- Analyse the methods by which Peter the Great subordinated the Orthodox Church to the state.
- Evaluate the impact of Peter's foreign policy successes on Russia's subsequent international obligations and domestic burdens.
Show all 18 objectives
- Identify the causes of the disputed successions following the death of Peter the Great.
- Analyse the political objectives and ultimate failure of the Supreme State Council during the 1730 succession crisis.
- Evaluate the influence of the Preobrazhensky Regiment in determining the outcome of palace coups between 1725 and 1762.
- Describe the events and key supporters of Elizabeth's 1741 palace coup.
- Analyse the cultural and educational institutions established during Elizabeth's reign to promote Westernisation.
- Evaluate the effectiveness and social impact of Elizabeth's legal and taxation reforms.
- Explain the process by which the nobility were freed from compulsory state service by 1762.
- Describe the legal and social changes that entrenched serfdom and increased the power of the nobility over the peasantry.
- Identify the primary economic and social catalysts for serf unrest between 1725 and 1762.
- Explain the causes and outcomes of Russian intervention in the War of the Polish Succession.
- Analyse the reasons for Russia's failure to secure the Crimea despite military victories against the Ottoman Empire.
- Evaluate the impact of the Seven Years War and Peter III's withdrawal on Russia's international standing and domestic politics.
- Evaluate the extent to which Peter the Great's administrative and military reforms survived up to 1762.
- Analyse the process by which the Russian nobility emancipated themselves from compulsory state service.
- Explain the political, military, and personal factors that enabled Catherine the Great to seize power in 1762.
1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only) – The epoch of palace coups, 1725–1762 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the function of the Table of Ranks (1722) in creating a meritocratic Service State that bound the nobility to the autocrat.
- Analyse the impact of the Holy Synod in removing the Church's political independence and transforming it into a department of state.
- Evaluate how the introduction of the soul tax (poll tax) and military conscription solidified the institution of serfdom and widened the social chasm.
- Assess the consequences of Russia's new status as a European great power, particularly the financial and military burdens of maintaining Baltic territories and a standing army.
- Explain how Peter the Great's 1722 Law of Succession, which allowed the monarch to choose their heir, inadvertently caused decades of disputed successions.
- Analyse the formation and function of the Supreme State Council as an oligarchic body attempting to control the monarch, particularly during the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II.
- Evaluate the significance of the 1730 'Conditions' as a failed constitutional attempt by the Supreme State Council to limit autocratic power.
- Assess the role of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and other Guards regiments as 'kingmakers' who used military force to resolve succession crises, such as in 1725 and 1741.
- Explain the role of the Preobrazhensky Guards and anti-German sentiment in Elizabeth's 1741 accession to the throne.
- Assess the impact of Moscow University (1755) and the Academy of Arts (1757) on Russian education and cultural Westernisation.
- Evaluate the significance and limitations of her legal reforms, particularly the abolition of capital punishment.
- Analyse the shift towards indirect taxation on salt and alcohol and its socio-economic impact on the peasantry.
- Trace the gradual relaxation of compulsory noble service, culminating in the 1762 Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility.
- Explain how the redefinition of the Service State altered the traditional social contract between the autocrat, the nobility, and the peasantry.
- Detail the legislative changes that worsened the condition of serfs, such as nobles gaining the right to exile serfs to Siberia in 1760.
- Analyse the causes of serf unrest, focusing on increased taxation, conscription, and the unchecked power of landowners.
- Assess the strategic motivations behind Russian intervention in the War of the Polish Succession to counter French influence.
- Evaluate the outcomes of the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739), specifically the terms of the Treaty of Niš which denied Russia a Black Sea fleet and confirmed the failure to secure the Crimea.
- Analyse the impact of Russian military successes during the Seven Years War, such as the occupation of Berlin in 1760, on its status as a major European power.
- Examine the domestic and diplomatic consequences of Peter III's alliance with Frederick the Great in 1762, which nullified previous Russian sacrifices.
- Assess the continuity of Petrine administrative structures, such as the Senate and the Holy Synod, during the era of palace coups.
- Evaluate the changing relationship between the autocracy and the nobility, focusing on the gradual dismantling of compulsory state service by 1762.
- Analyse the role of the Guards regiments as kingmakers in 18th-century Russian politics, culminating in the 1762 coup.
- Examine the immediate causes of Catherine the Great's accession, including Peter III's alienation of the army, the Church, and the nobility.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Link the concept of the Service State directly to the growing cultural and economic divide between the Westernised gentry and the traditional serfs.
- 💡When discussing international affairs, use the Great Northern War as the catalyst for Russia's permanent entanglement in European power politics.
- 💡Evaluate Peter's legacy as a dual-edged sword: it modernised the state apparatus but created deep structural resentments that fuelled the subsequent palace coups.
- 💡Use the 1730 succession crisis as a primary case study to contrast the oligarchic ambitions of the Supreme State Council with the autocratic preferences of the wider nobility.
- 💡Highlight the paradox of the era: while the monarch held absolute theoretical power, their practical survival depended entirely on the loyalty of the Preobrazhensky Regiment.
- 💡Connect the disputed successions back to Peter the Great's legacy, specifically his failure to secure a clear, legitimate line of succession before his death.
- 💡Link Elizabeth's educational reforms directly to the broader theme of Westernisation initiated by Peter the Great.
- 💡Use the abolition of the death penalty as a specific example of early Enlightenment influence on Russian autocracy.
- 💡When discussing taxation, contrast the growing financial burden on the peasantry with the increasing privileges of the nobility.
- 💡Contrast the growing liberties of the nobility with the increasing subjugation of the serfs to highlight the era's social polarisation.
- 💡Use the 1762 Manifesto as a turning point when evaluating changes to the Petrine Service State.
- 💡Connect the causes of serf unrest directly to the economic demands of the state and the absolute authority granted to landowners.
- 💡Link foreign policy outcomes to domestic stability, noting how Peter III's withdrawal from the Seven Years War alienated the army and facilitated his overthrow.
- 💡Contrast the successful projection of power in Poland with the logistical and diplomatic failures in the Crimea to provide a balanced assessment of foreign affairs.
- 💡Use specific treaties, such as the Treaty of Niš (1739), to substantiate arguments about the limitations of Russian expansion in the south.
- 💡When evaluating the survival of Petrine reforms, distinguish between institutional continuity (which remained strong) and social policies regarding the nobility (which shifted significantly).
- 💡Use Peter III's 1762 Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility as a key turning point in the evolution of the Russian social structure.
- 💡Connect foreign policy failures (like the withdrawal from the Seven Years War) directly to domestic instability and Catherine's successful coup.
Common Mistakes
- Assuming the Table of Ranks abolished the nobility; it actually restructured it to base status on state service rather than birthright alone.
- Claiming Peter abolished the Orthodox Church; he abolished the independent Patriarchate, replacing it with the state-controlled Holy Synod.
- Stating that Peter introduced serfdom; serfdom already existed, but Peter's poll tax and conscription significantly worsened the serfs' conditions and entrenched the system.
- Confusing the Supreme State Council with the Senate; the Council was a small, elite advisory body created in 1726 that temporarily overshadowed the Senate.
- Assuming the Preobrazhensky Regiment was a standard army unit; it was an elite Guards regiment composed largely of nobles with significant political influence.
- Claiming the 'Conditions' of 1730 successfully established a constitutional monarchy; Empress Anna tore them up once she secured the support of the Guards and lesser nobility.
- Confusing Elizabeth's accession with Catherine the Great's; Elizabeth overthrew Ivan VI and Anna Leopoldovna in 1741, not Peter III.
- Assuming her legal reforms created a complete, modern legal code; her legislative commission failed to finalise a new code despite abolishing the death penalty.
- Claiming taxation reforms relieved the peasantry; indirect taxes on essentials like salt actually increased the financial burden on the lower classes.
- Stating that the abolition of compulsory service applied to all classes; it only applied to the nobility, while serfs remained bound to the land and their lords.
- Assuming serf unrest was rare before Pugachev; localised uprisings and violent resistance were frequent and escalating throughout the 1725 to 1762 period.
- Claiming Catherine the Great issued the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility; it was actually issued by Peter III in 1762.
- Claiming Russia gained or relinquished the Crimea during the 1735-1739 war. Correction: Clarify that Russian forces withdrew due to logistics and disease, and the Treaty of Niš (1739) confirmed their failure to secure the Crimea or a Black Sea fleet.
- Confusing the War of the Polish Succession with the later Partitions of Poland. Correction: Ensure focus remains on the 1733-1735 succession crisis involving Augustus III, not the territorial divisions under Catherine the Great.
- Assuming Russia lost the Seven Years War militarily. Correction: Explain that Russia was militarily victorious and on the verge of crushing Prussia until Peter III voluntarily withdrew for personal dynastic reasons.
- Stating that all of Peter the Great's reforms were reversed by his successors. Correction: Emphasise that core structural reforms, like the Table of Ranks and the Holy Synod, survived and became entrenched, even as noble service obligations relaxed.
- Assuming Catherine the Great had a strong hereditary claim to the throne. Correction: Clarify that Catherine was a German princess with no Russian blood; she seized power through a military coup against her husband, the legitimate Romanov heir.
- Ignoring Peter III's role in his own downfall. Correction: Detail how Peter III's specific actions, such as the alliance with Prussia and threats to the Orthodox Church, directly provoked the coup that installed Catherine.