2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 – The War of the Barons, 1459–1461 — AQA A-Level History
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2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 – The War of the Barons, 1459–1461 explained
The rout at Ludford Bridge in 1459 forced Richard of York to flee to Ireland, while Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, escaped to Calais.
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This exile proved temporary, as Warwick used his naval base to launch a propaganda campaign and secure resources. Warwick's strategic return to England in 1460 marked his emergence as 'the Kingmaker', rallying popular support in Kent and London. This culminated in the Battle of Northampton in July 1460, where Yorkist forces decisively defeated the Lancastrians. The capture of Henry VI at Northampton fundamentally shifted the balance of power, allowing York to return from exile and formally claim the throne, escalating the conflict from a factional dispute to a dynastic war.
Filling the political vacuum: the rule of Richard of York as Protector of England
Henry VI's severe mental illness in 1453 created a profound political vacuum, necessitating a regency. Richard, Duke of York, was appointed Protector of England in March 1454, despite fierce opposition from Margaret of Anjou. York's First Protectorate attempted to restore law and order, notably intervening in the Percy-Neville feud, and sought to reform royal finances by reducing household expenditure. However, his rule was inherently partisan; he imprisoned his rival, Somerset, and heavily favoured his Neville allies. When Henry VI recovered in early 1455, York's protectorate was dismantled, Somerset was released, and the ensuing political reversal triggered armed conflict at St Albans.
Shifting loyalties and the Lancastrian revival: Wakefield; the second Battle of St Albans; the death of York and the restoration of Henry VI
The period 1460-1461 witnessed a dramatic Lancastrian revival driven by shifting noble loyalties following the Act of Accord. Queen Margaret rallied northern lords, leading to the Battle of Wakefield (December 1460), where Richard, Duke of York, was killed, removing the primary Yorkist figurehead. This Lancastrian momentum continued at the Second Battle of St Albans (February 1461), where Warwick's forces were defeated. Crucially, this victory allowed the Lancastrians to recapture and restore Henry VI, who had been a Yorkist prisoner. However, Margaret's decision not to enter London, due to the city's fear of her northern army, proved a fatal strategic error despite these military successes, leaving the capital open to York's heir.
Proclamation of Edward IV as King; Yorkist victory at Towton; the strengths and weaknesses of the Yorkists by 1461
Following the Lancastrian failure to secure London, Edward, Earl of March, capitalised on the capital's Yorkist sympathies and was proclaimed King Edward IV in March 1461. To secure his tenuous claim, Edward marched north, culminating in the decisive Yorkist victory at the brutal Battle of Towton. This victory demonstrated Yorkist strengths: Edward's charismatic military leadership, Warwick's logistical support, and crucial financial backing from London merchants. However, significant weaknesses remained by 1461. The Yorkist regime lacked widespread support among the traditional higher nobility, faced ongoing Lancastrian resistance in the north and Wales, and relied heavily on the over-mighty Neville family for stability.
Your focus
- Describe the events leading to the Yorkist exile following the rout at Ludford Bridge.
- Analyse the methods used by the Earl of Warwick to rebuild Yorkist power from his base in Calais.
- Evaluate the political consequences of the Yorkist victory and the capture of Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain how Henry VI's illness caused a political vacuum leading to the First Protectorate.
- Assess the successes and failures of Richard of York's domestic policies during his time as Protector of England.
- Analyse how the partisan nature of York's rule contributed to the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses.
- Explain the reasons for the Lancastrian military revival in late 1460 and early 1461.
- Analyse the consequences of the Battle of Wakefield and the death of Richard, Duke of York.
- Evaluate the strategic outcomes of the Second Battle of St Albans and the restoration of Henry VI.
- Explain the process and justifications for the proclamation of Edward IV as king in 1461.
- Analyse the reasons for the Yorkist military victory at the Battle of Towton.
- Evaluate the political, military, and economic strengths and weaknesses of the Yorkist regime at the end of 1461.
2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 – The War of the Barons, 1459–1461 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the causes and consequences of the Yorkist defeat at Ludford Bridge, leading to York's flight to Ireland and Warwick's retreat to Calais.
- Analyse how Warwick utilised his position as Captain of Calais to maintain Yorkist resistance, control the Channel, and launch a successful invasion of England in 1460.
- Evaluate the significance of the Battle of Northampton (July 1460), particularly the betrayal by Lord Grey of Ruthin which facilitated the Yorkist victory.
- Assess the political impact of Henry VI's capture at Northampton, which left the Lancastrian government leaderless and paved the way for York's Act of Accord.
- Explain how Henry VI's illness in 1453 created a political vacuum that led to York's appointment as Protector of England.
- Evaluate York's attempts to provide good governance, including his efforts to manage royal finances and restore law and order.
- Analyse the partisan nature of York's rule, specifically his imprisonment of the Duke of Somerset and his reliance on the Neville faction.
- Assess the consequences of Henry VI's recovery in 1455, which led to the end of the Protectorate and the escalation of factional tensions.
- Explain the causes of the Lancastrian revival, particularly Margaret of Anjou's successful recruitment of northern nobility and Scottish support.
- Analyse the impact of the Battle of Wakefield, specifically the power vacuum created by the deaths of Richard of York and the Earl of Salisbury.
- Evaluate the significance of the Second Battle of St Albans in securing the physical restoration of Henry VI to Lancastrian custody.
- Assess how shifting loyalties, such as the defection of Lovelace at St Albans, demonstrated the fragile nature of noble allegiances during this phase.
- Analyse the political manoeuvring that led to the proclamation of Edward IV, highlighting the role of London and the justification that Henry VI had breached the Act of Accord.
- Evaluate the factors contributing to the Yorkist victory at Towton, including weather conditions, Edward's leadership, and the late arrival of Norfolk's forces.
- Identify Yorkist strengths by 1461, such as control of the capital, merchant financial support, and the formidable military partnership of Edward and Warwick.
- Assess Yorkist weaknesses by 1461, particularly the survival of Margaret and Henry VI, and the disproportionate reliance on the Neville affinity.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use Warwick's actions in Calais to demonstrate his growing independent political and military influence before York's return.
- 💡Link the capture of Henry VI at Northampton directly to the escalation of the conflict, as it forced York to finally claim the crown rather than just the protectorship.
- 💡Contrast the Yorkist disaster at Ludford Bridge in 1459 with their rapid recovery by July 1460 to evaluate the underlying weaknesses of the Lancastrian regime.
- 💡Evaluate whether York's actions as Protector were driven by a genuine desire for good governance or by personal ambition and factional self-interest.
- 💡Use the Percy-Neville feud as a specific example to demonstrate both York's attempts to enforce justice and his inability to remain impartial.
- 💡Discuss how Henry VI's illness and subsequent recovery acted as catalysts for the shifting balance of power and the outbreak of conflict.
- 💡Use the Act of Accord as the catalyst for shifting loyalties, explaining why it alienated nobles and fuelled Margaret's northern revival.
- 💡Contrast the military success of the Lancastrians at Wakefield and St Albans with their political failure to secure London.
- 💡When discussing the death of York, evaluate whether it was a fatal blow to the Yorkists or a necessary step for Edward IV's more ruthless leadership.
- 💡Link Edward's proclamation as king directly to the Lancastrian failure to enter London after the Second Battle of St Albans.
- 💡Use the Battle of Towton to illustrate Edward IV's personal strengths as a military commander compared to the passive Henry VI.
- 💡When evaluating Yorkist weaknesses in 1461, focus on the geographical divide, noting that Lancastrian sentiment remained strong in the North and Wales.
Common Mistakes
- Assuming York and Warwick fled to the same location after Ludford Bridge; correct by specifying York went to Ireland while Warwick, Salisbury, and Edward of March went to Calais.
- Claiming York led the Yorkist forces at the Battle of Northampton; correct by noting that Warwick and Edward of March commanded the army, as York was still in Ireland.
- Confusing the capture of Henry VI at Northampton with his earlier capture at St Albans; correct by distinguishing the 1460 capture which directly led to York claiming the throne.
- Error: Stating that York claimed the throne during his First Protectorate. Correction: Clarify that he only claimed the role of Protector and Defender of the Realm to fill the political vacuum caused by Henry VI's illness.
- Error: Assuming York had universal support as Protector. Correction: Highlight the significant opposition from Margaret of Anjou and the broader Lancastrian nobility who distrusted his motives.
- Error: Claiming York executed Somerset during his Protectorate. Correction: Note Somerset was only imprisoned in the Tower of London without trial and was released upon Henry's recovery.
- Confusing the First and Second Battles of St Albans; the first in 1455 was a Yorkist victory, whereas the second in 1461 was a Lancastrian victory resulting in Henry VI's recovery.
- Assuming York's death at Wakefield ended the Yorkist cause; it actually transferred leadership to his highly capable son, Edward, Earl of March.
- Claiming Henry VI was restored to full independent power; he remained a passive figurehead, simply transferring from Yorkist control to Margaret's control.
- Stating that Towton completely destroyed the Lancastrian cause; Margaret, Henry, and key supporters escaped to Scotland to continue their resistance.
- Assuming Edward IV was crowned before Towton; he was only proclaimed king in March 1461 and formally crowned in June after securing military victory.
- Overstating Yorkist noble support; a significant weakness in 1461 was that the majority of the peerage had actually fought for the Lancastrians at Towton.