2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660 – Experiments in government and society, 1648–1660 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History
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2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660 – Experiments in government and society, 1648–1660 (A-level only) explained
The Third Civil War (1649–1651) emerged from an attempted Royalist revival after Charles I's execution.
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Prince Charles allied with Scottish Covenanters, accepting Presbyterianism to secure military backing against the English republic. Cromwell countered by invading Scotland, winning decisively at Dunbar in 1650. Undeterred, Charles marched a Scottish army into England to rally English Royalists, but faced a crushing defeat at the Battle of Worcester in 1651. Following this destruction of Royalist military hopes, Prince Charles evaded capture and fled into a prolonged exile on the Continent. This decisive defeat ended the Civil Wars, neutralising the Royalist threat for a decade and cementing the authority of the new republican regime.
Political radicalism: failure of the Levellers and Diggers and the ‘Godly Society’; Quakers, Baptists and other radical sects; the Rump Parliament as an experiment in radical republicanism; the Parliament of the Saints
The period 1648–1660 saw intense political radicalism and religious experimentation. The Levellers' push for democratic franchise and the Diggers' agrarian communism both failed, suppressed by a regime fearing social anarchy. The broader vision of a 'Godly Society' struggled against conservative resistance. Radical sects like the Quakers, Baptists, and Fifth Monarchists proliferated, challenging traditional hierarchies. The Rump Parliament (1648–1653) served as an initial experiment in radical republicanism, abolishing the monarchy, yet it proved too conservative for army radicals. Its replacement, the Parliament of the Saints (1653), was a unique assembly of nominated men aiming to enact sweeping reforms. However, internal divisions between moderates and radicals led to its rapid collapse, highlighting the inherent difficulties of sustaining a radical 'Godly Society'.
Oliver Cromwell and the Protectorate: Cromwell’s personality and approach to government and his refusal of the Crown; the limits of religious toleration; the Major Generals; the problem of the succession to Cromwell
Cromwell’s Protectorate was defined by his desire for political 'healing and settling' alongside godly reformation. His government relied heavily on his personal authority. When offered the monarchy via the Humble Petition and Advice (1657), Cromwell refused the Crown, fearing army backlash and divine disapproval. Religious toleration expanded for Independents, but strict limits remained, with Catholics and Anglicans suppressed. The Rule of the Major Generals (1655–1657) imposed harsh moral codes and taxes, deeply alienating the gentry. Finally, the problem of succession exposed the regime's fragility; Cromwell's nomination of his inexperienced son, Richard, ensured the Protectorate could not survive his death.
The monarchy restored: political vacuum after the death of Cromwell; negotiations for the return of the monarchy under Charles II; the legacy of the English Revolution by 1660
Cromwell's death in 1658 created a severe political vacuum. His son Richard lacked military authority, sparking a power struggle between the army and Parliament that collapsed the Protectorate. Amidst this chaos, General Monck marched on London, enabling the Convention Parliament to assemble. Negotiations for the return of the monarchy under Charles II culminated in the Declaration of Breda (1660). This promised amnesty, religious toleration, and army pay, securing a peaceful restoration. By 1660, the legacy of the English Revolution was profound. While absolute monarchy was fatally undermined and Parliament's role cemented, the radical experiments left the political nation with a deep-seated fear of standing armies and religious sectarianism.
Your focus
- Describe the alliance between Prince Charles and the Scottish Covenanters.
- Explain the sequence of military events leading to the defeat at Worcester.
- Analyse the impact of Prince Charles's exile on the stability of the English Republic.
Show all 12 objectives
- Differentiate between the ideologies and goals of the Levellers, Diggers, Quakers, and Baptists.
- Evaluate the Rump Parliament's record as an experiment in radical republicanism.
- Explain the reasons for the failure of the Parliament of the Saints and the broader 'Godly Society'.
- Analyse Cromwell's motives for refusing the Crown in 1657.
- Evaluate the success and unpopularity of the Rule of the Major Generals.
- Explain why the succession of Richard Cromwell led to the collapse of the Protectorate.
- Explain the causes of the political vacuum following the death of Oliver Cromwell.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of the Declaration of Breda in securing the Restoration of Charles II.
- Assess the political and religious legacy of the English Revolution by the year 1660.
2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660 – Experiments in government and society, 1648–1660 (A-level only) exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the terms of the Treaty of Breda (1650) and how Prince Charles's alliance with the Covenanters facilitated the attempted Royalist revival.
- Assess the strategic importance of Cromwell's victory at the Battle of Dunbar (1650) in crippling the Scottish-Royalist war effort.
- Analyse the reasons for the failure of the Royalist invasion of England, particularly the lack of support from English Royalists during the march to Worcester.
- Evaluate the consequences of the Battle of Worcester (1651) in securing the English republic and forcing Prince Charles into a nine-year exile.
- Analyse the reasons for the failure of the Levellers (e.g., Burford mutiny) and Diggers in achieving their political and social aims.
- Evaluate the growth and perceived threat of radical religious sects, including Quakers and Baptists, to the established social order.
- Assess the extent to which the Rump Parliament functioned as a genuine experiment in radical republicanism versus a conservative holding operation.
- Explain the origins, radical objectives, and ultimate failure of the Parliament of the Saints (Barebone's Parliament) in establishing a 'Godly Society'.
- Explain how Cromwell's providentialism and reliance on the army shaped his approach to government and his ultimate refusal of the Crown in 1657.
- Assess the impact of the Major Generals in alienating the traditional political nation through the decimation tax and enforcement of godly reformation.
- Evaluate the extent of religious toleration, noting the inclusion of moderate sects and Jews, contrasted with the persecution of Catholics and Anglicans.
- Analyse the structural weaknesses of the Protectorate, specifically how the succession of Richard Cromwell highlighted the regime's dependence on Oliver's unique military and political standing.
- Explain how the lack of a strong successor and the division between the army and Parliament created a political vacuum in 1659.
- Assess the role of General Monck in navigating the political crisis and facilitating the Convention Parliament.
- Evaluate the significance of the Declaration of Breda in the negotiations for the return of Charles II, particularly its vague but reassuring promises.
- Analyse the legacy of the Revolution by 1660, focusing on the permanent shift in the balance of power between Crown and Parliament and the enduring fear of radicalism.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When evaluating the survival of the Republic, contrast the severe threat posed by the Scottish alliance with the ultimate weakness of English Royalist support in 1651.
- 💡Use the Battle of Worcester as a definitive turning point that shifted the Republic's focus from military survival to political settlement.
- 💡Link Prince Charles's exile to the broader European context, noting how foreign powers were reluctant to support a defeated exile over the formidable New Model Army.
- 💡When discussing the failure of radicalism, emphasise the role of the New Model Army leadership in suppressing groups that threatened property and social order.
- 💡Contrast the Rump Parliament's reluctance to enact sweeping reforms with the Parliament of the Saints' overly ambitious and divisive radical agenda.
- 💡Use the proliferation of sects like the Quakers to illustrate the breakdown of censorship and the fear of a 'world turned upside down' among the traditional gentry.
- 💡Use the James Nayler case (1656) as a concrete example to demonstrate the limits of religious toleration and the tension between Cromwell and his parliaments.
- 💡When discussing Cromwell's refusal of the Crown, weigh the influence of army opposition against his own providential fears of committing a sin.
- 💡Link the failure of the Major Generals directly to the gentry's desire for a return to traditional, civilian local government.
- 💡Focus on the Declaration of Breda as a brilliant piece of political negotiation that appealed to multiple factions simultaneously.
- 💡When discussing the political vacuum, contrast Richard Cromwell's lack of military experience with his father's strong army connections.
- 💡Use the term 'political nation' to describe the gentry and merchants whose desire for stability ultimately drove the Restoration.
Common Mistakes
- Error: Confusing the Second and Third Civil Wars. Correction: Ensure the Third Civil War is specifically identified as the 1649-1651 conflict involving Prince Charles and the Scots, not the 1648 uprisings.
- Error: Assuming English Royalists heavily supported Charles at Worcester. Correction: Note that English Royalist turnout was extremely poor, which was a key factor in his defeat.
- Error: Stating Charles was captured after Worcester. Correction: Specify that Charles successfully evaded capture and escaped into exile on the Continent.
- Error: Treating all radical groups as having the same aims. Correction: Distinguish clearly between the secular and political aims of the Levellers, the economic radicalism of the Diggers, and the religious focus of the Quakers and Baptists.
- Error: Viewing the Rump Parliament as entirely radical. Correction: Acknowledge that while its origins (Pride's Purge) and actions (regicide) were radical, its members were largely conservative and resisted further social reform.
- Error: Confusing the Rump Parliament with the Parliament of the Saints. Correction: Ensure the Rump (the purged Long Parliament) is distinct from the Parliament of the Saints (the nominated assembly of 1653).
- Error: Claiming Cromwell accepted the Crown in 1657. Correction: State that Cromwell accepted the Humble Petition and Advice but explicitly refused the title of King.
- Error: Stating there was absolute religious freedom during the Protectorate. Correction: Specify that toleration was limited to Protestant sects, while Catholics, Anglicans, and radical blasphemers were excluded.
- Error: Confusing the Rule of the Major Generals with the earlier Rump Parliament. Correction: Place the Major Generals accurately between 1655 and 1657 as a direct response to Penruddock's uprising.
- Error: Assuming the Restoration was inevitable immediately after Oliver Cromwell's death. Correction: Emphasise that the Restoration only became likely after the collapse of the restored Rump and Monck's intervention in late 1659 and early 1660.
- Error: Stating the Declaration of Breda was a legally binding constitution. Correction: Describe the Declaration of Breda as a manifesto of promises that relied on Parliament to legislate the specifics.
- Error: Claiming the Revolution left no lasting legacy because the monarchy was restored. Correction: Highlight that the restored monarchy was fundamentally different, with Parliament's financial and legislative power permanently enhanced.