2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The Great Powers and Crises, 1900–1911 — AQA A-Level History
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2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The Great Powers and Crises, 1900–1911 explained
Balkan nationalism severely destabilised Europe, threatening Austria-Hungary’s multi-ethnic empire with fragmentation while offering Russia opportunities to expand its influence through Pan-Slavism.
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Concurrently, militarism permeated the Second Reich, where the German army held immense political power, largely unaccountable to the Reichstag. This culture fuelled intense arms and naval races, notably the Anglo-German competition over Dreadnought construction, which heightened mutual suspicions. Furthermore, rigid military plans, such as Germany's Schlieffen Plan and France's Plan XVII, created a dangerous inflexibility. These mobilisation schedules meant that once a crisis escalated, military logic often overrode political negotiation.
Evolving alliances: the Moroccan crises; Anglo-French Entente; the formation of the Triple Entente
The evolution of European alliances fundamentally shifted the balance of power. The 1904 Anglo-French Entente resolved colonial disputes, ending Britain's 'splendid isolation'. Germany attempted to test and break this new friendship during the First Moroccan Crisis (1905), but the Algeciras Conference only strengthened Anglo-French ties. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention subsequently resolved Asian colonial rivalries, completing the formation of the Triple Entente. Germany's aggressive gunboat diplomacy during the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) at Agadir further solidified this bloc. Instead of dividing its rivals, Germany's actions convinced Britain, France, and Russia that they needed closer military and diplomatic cooperation.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire: the weakening of the Empire in Eastern Europe; the causes and consequences of the Young Turk Movement
The Ottoman Empire's decline created a dangerous power vacuum in Eastern Europe. This weakening was accelerated by Balkan nationalist uprisings and territorial losses, destabilising the region. In response to this decline and Sultan Abdul Hamid II's autocratic rule, the Young Turk Movement emerged. The causes of their 1908 revolution included a desire to modernise the state, restore the 1876 constitution, and prevent further imperial collapse. The consequences were profound: while initially promising democratic reform, the revolution triggered immediate crises, including Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Bulgaria's independence, ultimately accelerating the empire's fragmentation and heightening international tensions.
Panslavism and the Bosnian Crisis: the causes, course and consequences of the Bosnian Crisis
Panslavism, the movement to unite Slavic peoples, heavily influenced Russian and Serbian policy, creating friction with Austria-Hungary. The causes of the 1908 Bosnian Crisis lay in Austria-Hungary's desire to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina to thwart Serbian expansionism, exploiting the Young Turk Revolution. The course of the crisis involved a secret agreement between Austrian and Russian ministers at Buchlau, which unravelled when Austria annexed the territory before Russia secured its goals. The consequences were severe: Serbia was enraged, Russia was humiliated after a German ultimatum forced them to back down, and the Triple Entente was strengthened as Russia resolved never to yield again, setting the stage for 1914.
Your focus
- Analyse the impact of Balkan nationalism on the foreign policies of Austria-Hungary and Russia.
- Evaluate the political influence of the German army within the Second Reich.
- Explain how the arms and naval races, alongside rigid military plans, contributed to international instability.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain the terms and initial purpose of the 1904 Anglo-French Entente.
- Analyse the causes and consequences of the First and Second Moroccan Crises.
- Evaluate the process and significance of the formation of the Triple Entente by 1907.
- Explain the factors contributing to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Europe.
- Analyse the political and ideological causes of the Young Turk Movement.
- Assess the domestic and international consequences of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution.
- Define Panslavism and evaluate its impact on Balkan geopolitics.
- Trace the diplomatic course of the 1908 Bosnian Crisis from the Buchlau agreement to the German ultimatum.
- Analyse the long-term consequences of the Bosnian Crisis on Great Power relations.
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The Great Powers and Crises, 1900–1911 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain how Balkan nationalism threatened the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary while aligning with Russia's strategic goal of supporting Slavic states.
- Assess the political dominance of the German army within the Second Reich and its influence on foreign policy decision-making.
- Analyse the impact of the Anglo-German naval race on diplomatic relations, specifically how it pushed Britain away from 'splendid isolation'.
- Evaluate how rigid military timetables, such as the Schlieffen Plan, restricted diplomatic options during crises by demanding rapid mobilisation.
- Explain the origins of the Anglo-French Entente as a colonial settlement rather than a formal military alliance.
- Analyse how Germany's actions in the First Moroccan Crisis backfired, leading to closer military conversations between Britain and France.
- Evaluate the significance of the 1907 Anglo-Russian agreement in forming the Triple Entente and completing the diplomatic encirclement of Germany.
- Assess the impact of the 1911 Agadir Crisis on solidifying the Triple Entente and increasing British commitment to French security.
- Identify the structural weaknesses of the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Europe, including administrative inefficiency and nationalist pressures.
- Explain the ideological and political causes of the Young Turk Movement, focusing on the desire for constitutionalism and modernisation.
- Analyse the immediate consequences of the 1908 revolution, such as the opportunistic territorial grabs by Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.
- Evaluate how the Young Turk Movement's centralising policies alienated non-Turkish minorities, further weakening the empire's cohesion.
- Define Panslavism and explain its role in driving Serbian ambitions and Russian foreign policy in the Balkans.
- Identify the causes of the Bosnian Crisis, specifically Austria-Hungary's fear of a resurgent Ottoman Empire and Serbian nationalism.
- Detail the course of the crisis, including the Buchlau agreement and the diplomatic manoeuvring between Aehrenthal and Izvolsky.
- Evaluate the consequences of the crisis, notably the humiliation of Russia, the emboldening of Austria-Hungary, and the tightening of the alliance system.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Link the position of the German army directly to the failure of civilian politicians to control foreign policy during the July Crisis.
- 💡Use specific examples, such as the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, to illustrate the scale and intensity of the naval race.
- 💡When discussing military plans, emphasise the concept of 'mobilisation meaning war' to explain why the crisis escalated so rapidly.
- 💡Emphasise how German attempts to break the Anglo-French Entente during the Moroccan crises actually achieved the opposite result.
- 💡Trace the shift in British foreign policy from 'splendid isolation' to active alignment with France and Russia.
- 💡Use the term 'encirclement' to explain German fears regarding the formation of the Triple Entente.
- 💡Link the internal instability of the Ottoman Empire directly to the shifting balance of power among the Great Powers in Europe.
- 💡Use the 1908 Young Turk Revolution as a pivotal turning point that connects Ottoman decline to the subsequent Bosnian Crisis.
- 💡When discussing consequences, distinguish between the short-term political changes in Istanbul and the long-term geopolitical impact on the Balkans.
- 💡Use the Bosnian Crisis to demonstrate how regional Balkan conflicts became entangled with the Great Power alliance system.
- 💡Highlight the diplomatic humiliation of Russia in 1908-1909 to explain their rapid mobilisation during the July Crisis of 1914.
- 💡Explicitly connect the ideology of Panslavism to the deterioration of Austro-Russian relations.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the arms race with the naval race; the naval race was primarily Anglo-German, whereas the arms race involved expanding land armies across all major continental powers.
- Assuming the Schlieffen Plan was a purely defensive strategy; it was an aggressive preemptive strike designed to defeat France before turning to Russia.
- Stating that Russia controlled Balkan nationalism; Russia supported Pan-Slavism to gain influence, but Balkan states like Serbia acted independently to achieve their own nationalist goals.
- Describing the Anglo-French Entente as a formal military alliance; it was initially a colonial agreement that only later developed military dimensions due to German pressure.
- Confusing the outcomes of the two Moroccan Crises; the first led to the Algeciras Conference, while the second (Agadir) resulted in a territorial compromise in Africa but deeper Anglo-French naval cooperation.
- Assuming the Triple Entente was a single treaty; it was a web of three separate agreements (Franco-Russian, Anglo-French, Anglo-Russian) that aligned the three powers.
- Assuming the Young Turk Movement successfully stabilised the Ottoman Empire; in reality, their revolution inadvertently triggered further territorial losses in the Balkans.
- Confusing the Young Turks with later Turkish nationalists under Atatürk; ensure focus remains on the pre-WWI Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).
- Overlooking the role of European powers in the Ottoman decline; correct this by linking internal Ottoman weakness to the predatory foreign policies of Russia and Austria-Hungary.
- Stating that Russia fully supported Austria's annexation from the start; correct this by explaining the conditional nature of the Buchlau agreement which Austria violated.
- Ignoring the role of Germany in the crisis; ensure you mention the German 'shining armour' ultimatum that forced Russia to back down.
- Treating Panslavism as a unified political force; correct this by distinguishing between Russian imperial Panslavism and radical Serbian nationalism.