2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – Attempts at maintaining the peace, 1923–1935 — AQA A-Level History
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2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – Attempts at maintaining the peace, 1923–1935 explained
The 'Spirit of Locarno' defines the optimistic era of European diplomacy from 1925 to 1929, aiming to consolidate the post-war settlement through conciliation.
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The 1924 Dawes Plan eased German reparations, stabilising the economy with US loans and ending the Ruhr crisis. The 1924 Geneva Protocol attempted to strengthen the League of Nations by making arbitration compulsory, though its failure highlighted ongoing security fears. The 1925 Locarno Treaties secured western borders, fostering goodwill. This culminated in the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, an ambitious but unenforceable attempt at disarmament where 65 nations renounced war as an instrument of national policy, masking underlying international tensions.
The Depression and its impact on international relations: the failures of the Lausanne and London Conferences on international debts and reparations
The Great Depression destabilised international relations, replacing the cooperative 'Spirit of Locarno' with economic nationalism. As global trade collapsed, the system of US loans, German reparations, and Allied war debts broke down. The 1932 Lausanne Conference attempted to address this by effectively cancelling German reparations, but failed to resolve the wider issue of Allied debts to the USA, which Congress refused to forgive. The 1933 London World Economic Conference then sought international agreement on currency stabilisation and trade revival. Its failure, triggered by US President Roosevelt's refusal to stabilise the dollar, marked the end of collective economic diplomacy and accelerated the global drift towards autarky and conflict.
Changing balance of power: the ambitions of Italy, Japan and Germany
Between 1923 and 1935, the global balance of power shifted dramatically as Italy, Japan, and Germany pursued aggressive expansionist ambitions, undermining the post-war settlement. Italy, under Mussolini, sought to recreate a Roman Empire in the Mediterranean and Africa, aiming for 'spazio vitale' and prestige. Japan, driven by militarism and economic necessity following the Great Depression, aimed to dominate East Asia, seeking raw materials and living space, culminating in the invasion of Manchuria. Germany, following Hitler's rise to power in 1933, focused on overturning the Treaty of Versailles, rearming, and securing 'Lebensraum' in Eastern Europe. Together, these revisionist ambitions fractured the fragile international order and exposed the weaknesses of democratic powers.
The collapse of collective security: the reasons for and consequences of the failure of League of Nations in the Manchurian and Abyssinian Crises
The collapse of collective security was starkly demonstrated by the League of Nations' failure to resolve the Manchurian (1931) and Abyssinian (1935) Crises. Reasons for failure included the absence of major powers like the USA, the slow bureaucratic processes of the League (such as the Lytton Report), and the self-interest of Britain and France, who prioritised their own empires and the Stresa Front over collective action. The consequences were catastrophic: the League was exposed as powerless against aggressive expansionism, economic sanctions were proven ineffective (as seen with the Hoare-Laval Pact), and revisionist powers were emboldened. Ultimately, these failures destroyed the credibility of the League and paved the way for further aggression.
Your focus
- Explain the terms and economic impact of the 1924 Dawes Plan.
- Analyse the reasons for the failure of the Geneva Protocol and its implications for the League of Nations.
- Evaluate the extent to which the Kellogg-Briand Pact and the 'Spirit of Locarno' consolidated the post-war settlement.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain how the Great Depression impacted international relations and the system of global debt.
- Analyse the aims and reasons for the failure of the 1932 Lausanne Conference regarding reparations.
- Evaluate the significance of the 1933 London Conference's failure in promoting economic nationalism.
- Compare the specific territorial and ideological ambitions of Italy, Japan, and Germany.
- Explain how the Great Depression influenced the foreign policies of these three nations.
- Evaluate the impact of these combined ambitions on the global balance of power by 1935.
- Identify the specific reasons why the League of Nations failed to halt aggression in Manchuria and Abyssinia.
- Analyse the role of British and French foreign policy in undermining collective security during these crises.
- Evaluate the consequences of these failures on the international order and the emboldening of revisionist powers.
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – Attempts at maintaining the peace, 1923–1935 exam tips
Marking Points
- Assess the impact of the Dawes Plan (1924) on European economic stability and the easing of Franco-German tensions.
- Evaluate the significance of the Locarno Treaties (1925) in consolidating the post-war settlement by guaranteeing Germany's western borders.
- Analyse the failure of the Geneva Protocol (1924) as a missed opportunity for collective security and compulsory arbitration.
- Critique the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) as a symbolic gesture of conciliation that lacked enforcement mechanisms for genuine disarmament.
- Analyse how the Wall Street Crash and subsequent Depression destroyed the economic foundations of the Locarno era.
- Evaluate the outcomes of the 1932 Lausanne Conference, specifically the suspension of reparations and the unresolved tension over Allied war debts to the USA.
- Assess the reasons for the failure of the 1933 London World Economic Conference, focusing on Roosevelt's 'Bombshell Message'.
- Explain how the failure of these conferences led to increased economic nationalism, protectionism, and the rise of aggressive autarkic regimes.
- Identify Mussolini's desire for 'spazio vitale' and imperial expansion in Africa to boost domestic support and international prestige.
- Explain Japan's economic motivations for expansion into Manchuria, driven by the need for raw materials and markets following the 1929 Wall Street Crash.
- Analyse Hitler's foreign policy aims, specifically the dismantling of the Treaty of Versailles, rearmament, and the pursuit of 'Lebensraum'.
- Evaluate how the combined revisionist ambitions of these three nations shifted the global balance of power away from the League of Nations' leading democracies.
- Analyse the structural and membership weaknesses of the League that hindered decisive action in Manchuria, such as the absence of the USA and the requirement for unanimous decisions.
- Explain how British and French self-interest, particularly the desire to maintain Italy as an ally against Germany, undermined the response to the Abyssinian Crisis.
- Evaluate the failure of economic sanctions in Abyssinia, noting the exclusion of vital resources like oil and the continued use of the Suez Canal by Italian forces.
- Assess the long-term consequences of these crises, specifically how they emboldened Hitler and Mussolini, leading to the Rome-Berlin Axis and the definitive collapse of collective security.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use the phrase 'Spirit of Locarno' to evaluate whether the period represented genuine conciliation or merely a temporary illusion of peace funded by US loans.
- 💡Link the Dawes Plan directly to the political success of Locarno, demonstrating how economic stability was a prerequisite for diplomatic progress.
- 💡Contrast the idealistic aims of the Kellogg-Briand Pact with the practical failure to achieve binding disarmament agreements during this period.
- 💡Use the failure of the London Conference to demonstrate the shift from international cooperation in the 1920s to isolationism in the 1930s.
- 💡Link the economic collapse directly to political extremism, showing how the failure to resolve debts at Lausanne weakened moderate governments, particularly in Weimar Germany.
- 💡When discussing the Depression's impact, explicitly mention the breakdown of the Dawes and Young Plans to show continuity and change in international relations.
- 💡Use specific terminology like 'Lebensraum' for Germany and 'spazio vitale' for Italy to demonstrate precise historical knowledge.
- 💡When evaluating the changing balance of power, contrast the growing military strength of these revisionist states with the reluctance of Britain and France to rearm.
- 💡Link the domestic pressures within Italy, Japan, and Germany to their aggressive foreign policy decisions during this period.
- 💡Use the Hoare-Laval Pact as a prime example of how the self-interest of major powers directly contradicted and undermined the principles of collective security.
- 💡Compare the reasons for failure in both crises to build a strong analytical argument about the inherent flaws of the League of Nations.
- 💡Explicitly link the failure in Abyssinia to the subsequent aggressive actions of Germany, such as the remilitarisation of the Rhineland.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the Dawes Plan with the Young Plan; correct by noting the Dawes Plan (1924) provided immediate short-term relief and US loans, whereas the Young Plan (1929) restructured the total debt.
- Assuming the Kellogg-Briand Pact achieved actual disarmament; correct by explaining it was a renunciation of war that lacked any military or economic sanctions to enforce peace.
- Stating the Geneva Protocol was successfully implemented; correct by identifying that Britain rejected it, leading to its collapse and demonstrating the limits of League authority.
- Claiming the Lausanne Conference successfully resolved all international debt; correct by noting it only suspended German reparations, while the USA still demanded repayment of Allied war debts.
- Confusing the aims of the two conferences; correct by specifying that Lausanne (1932) dealt with reparations and war debts, whereas London (1933) focused on broader currency stabilisation and tariff reduction.
- Underestimating the role of the USA in the failure of the London Conference; correct by explicitly linking the conference's collapse to Roosevelt's prioritisation of domestic recovery over international cooperation.
- Treating the ambitions of the three powers as identical; correction: distinguish between Japan's immediate economic drivers, Germany's ideological and territorial aims, and Italy's focus on prestige and Mediterranean dominance.
- Assuming Germany was the sole threat to peace before 1935; correction: acknowledge that Japan and Italy actively destabilised the international order earlier, such as in Manchuria in 1931.
- Ignoring the impact of the Great Depression; correction: explicitly link the economic crisis of the 1930s to the rise of militarism and the acceleration of expansionist ambitions in all three nations.
- Confusing the timelines and details of the two crises; correction: clearly separate the Manchurian Crisis (1931, Lytton Report, Japan) from the Abyssinian Crisis (1935, Hoare-Laval Pact, Italy).
- Stating the League did absolutely nothing; correction: specify that the League did act through moral condemnation and limited sanctions, but these actions were fundamentally ineffective.
- Blaming the failure solely on the League's structure; correction: balance structural weaknesses with the lack of political will from leading members, particularly Britain and France.