2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The coming of war, 1911–1917 — AQA A-Level History
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2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The coming of war, 1911–1917 explained
The First Balkan War (1912) was caused by the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro) exploiting Ottoman weakness to seize European territories.
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The Second Balkan War (1913) erupted when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the division of Macedonia, attacked its former allies. The Great Powers attempted to impose peace through the Treaty of London (1913), creating an independent Albania to block Serbian access to the sea, and the Treaty of Bucharest (1913). These conflicts profoundly impacted the region: Serbia doubled in size and grew increasingly nationalist, threatening Austria-Hungary. The Great Powers were polarised; Russia felt compelled to back Serbia in future crises to maintain prestige, while Germany strengthened its alliance with Austria-Hungary, escalating tensions.
The outbreak of war in the Balkans and the July Crisis: Austria-Hungary’s and Germany’s response to the assassination in Sarajevo; Russia's response to Austria-Hungary’s demands on Serbia; the bombardment of Belgrade
The July Crisis began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary responded by seeking to crush Serbian nationalism, securing Germany's unconditional support via the 'blank cheque'. This emboldened Vienna to issue a deliberately unacceptable ultimatum to Serbia. When Serbia rejected key terms, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914. The subsequent bombardment of Belgrade on 29 July 1914 marked the definitive outbreak of war in the Balkans. Russia responded to Austria-Hungary's demands on Serbia by initiating partial, then full, military mobilisation to defend its Slavic ally and maintain its Great Power status. This escalation transformed a localised Balkan conflict into a general European war.
General war in Europe: mobilisation of German and Russian forces; the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan and the invasion of Belgium; Britain’s declaration of war; the key decision makers and their motives
The outbreak of general war in Europe in 1914 was driven by rapid military mobilisation and rigid strategic planning. Russia's early mobilisation to support Serbia triggered Germany's own mobilisation, driven by fears of a two-front war. To counter this, Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan, a strategy requiring a swift defeat of France via the invasion of neutral Belgium before turning east to face Russia. This violation of Belgian neutrality provided the catalyst for Britain’s declaration of war on Germany. Key decision makers, such as Kaiser Wilhelm II, Tsar Nicholas II, and British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey, acted on complex motives including national prestige, alliance obligations, and domestic pressures, ultimately transforming a regional Balkan crisis into a continental conflict.
From European to World War: the escalation of the conflict; Italy’s motives for war; reasons for the entry of the USA
The transformation of the 1914 European conflict into a global World War involved significant escalation and the entry of new powers. The conflict escalated geographically and technologically, drawing in global empires. Italy, despite its pre-war alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, initially remained neutral. Its eventual entry in 1915 on the side of the Entente was driven by opportunistic motives, specifically the promise of territorial gains secured through the secret Treaty of London. The entry of the USA in 1917 was catalysed by Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, which threatened American shipping, alongside the provocative Zimmermann Telegram. These factors, combined with economic ties to the Allies and Wilson's ideological goals, forced the USA into the war.
Your focus
- Identify the distinct causes of the First and Second Balkan Wars.
- Analyse the effectiveness of the Great Powers' attempts to impose peace in the Balkans.
- Evaluate the consequences of the Balkan Wars for Serbia and the shifting balance of power among the Great Powers.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain the motivations behind Austria-Hungary's ultimatum and Germany's 'blank cheque' following the Sarajevo assassination.
- Analyse the reasons for Russia's mobilisation in response to the demands placed on Serbia.
- Assess the significance of the bombardment of Belgrade in triggering the wider European conflict.
- Explain the sequence and significance of Russian and German mobilisation in 1914.
- Analyse how the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan and the invasion of Belgium led to Britain's entry into the war.
- Evaluate the motives and actions of key decision makers in the escalation to a general European war.
- Describe the ways in which the initial European conflict escalated into a World War.
- Explain Italy's motives for abandoning neutrality and joining the Entente in 1915.
- Evaluate the short-term triggers and long-term reasons for the entry of the USA into the war in 1917.
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only) – The coming of war, 1911–1917 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explain the formation of the Balkan League and its role in causing the First Balkan War by attacking the Ottoman Empire.
- Analyse the causes of the Second Balkan War, specifically Bulgaria's dissatisfaction with the territorial settlements in Macedonia.
- Evaluate the Great Powers' attempts to impose peace, such as the London Conference (1912-1913) and the creation of Albania.
- Assess the impact on Serbia, noting its territorial expansion, increased military confidence, and heightened nationalist agitation against Austria-Hungary.
- Discuss the impact on the Great Powers, particularly the hardening of the Austro-German alliance and Russia's commitment to supporting Serbia.
- Detail Austria-Hungary's response to the Sarajevo assassination, focusing on the drafting of the July Ultimatum designed to be rejected by Serbia.
- Explain Germany's role in the crisis, specifically the issuing of the 'blank cheque' which encouraged Austro-Hungarian aggression.
- Analyse Russia's response to the Austro-Hungarian demands, including the decision to mobilise its army to protect Serbia and preserve Russian prestige.
- Describe the significance of the bombardment of Belgrade on 29 July 1914 as the definitive transition from diplomatic crisis to armed conflict in the Balkans.
- Evaluate how the interplay between Austro-German aggression and Russian mobilisation escalated the local conflict into a global war.
- Explain the timeline and impact of Russian and German mobilisation in escalating the July Crisis.
- Analyse the strategic rationale behind the Schlieffen Plan and how its reliance on invading Belgium forced a wider conflict.
- Evaluate the motives behind Britain's declaration of war, balancing the moral outrage over Belgium with long-term strategic concerns regarding German hegemony.
- Assess the roles and motives of key decision makers, such as Bethmann Hollweg, Sazonov, and Grey, in the failure of diplomacy.
- Detail the factors that escalated the conflict from a European dispute into a global war, including colonial involvement and naval warfare.
- Analyse Italy's shift from the Triple Alliance to joining the Entente, focusing on the territorial promises in the 1915 Treaty of London.
- Evaluate the impact of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram on shifting US public opinion and political stance.
- Assess the underlying economic and ideological reasons for the USA's entry into the war in 1917 under President Woodrow Wilson.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Link the outcomes of the Balkan Wars directly to the heightened tensions that precipitated the July Crisis of 1914.
- 💡Use specific treaties, such as the Treaty of London (1913) and Treaty of Bucharest (1913), to demonstrate the Great Powers' attempts to impose peace.
- 💡Contrast the differing impacts on Russia and Austria-Hungary to evaluate how the wars polarised the alliance system.
- 💡Trace the chronological escalation of the July Crisis to demonstrate how diplomatic miscalculations led to the bombardment of Belgrade.
- 💡Analyse the concept of the 'blank cheque' to evaluate the extent of German responsibility for the outbreak of war.
- 💡Discuss Russian mobilisation as a critical turning point that forced Germany to enact the Schlieffen Plan, broadening the conflict.
- 💡When discussing the outbreak of war, explicitly link military plans like the Schlieffen Plan to the diplomatic failures of the key decision makers.
- 💡Use specific dates from the July Crisis to demonstrate how the speed of mobilisation limited the window for diplomatic resolution.
- 💡Contrast the public justifications for war, such as defending neutrality, with the underlying strategic motives of the Great Powers.
- 💡Weigh the relative importance of ideological motives versus practical economic and security concerns when explaining the USA's entry into the war.
- 💡Use the Treaty of London as a specific example of how secret diplomacy and territorial ambitions drove Italy's motives for war.
- 💡When discussing escalation, ensure you reference both the geographical spread, such as the use of colonial troops, and the intensification of the methods of warfare.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing the causes of the two wars; correction: the First was against the Ottoman Empire for territory, while the Second was an internal dispute among the Balkan League over the spoils.
- Assuming the Great Powers were united in their peace efforts; correction: peace conferences like the Treaty of London were fraught with Great Power rivalries, particularly between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
- Underestimating Serbia's gains; correction: Serbia emerged significantly larger and more militarily confident, which directly destabilised its relationship with Austria-Hungary.
- Stating that Germany forced Austria-Hungary to declare war; correction: Germany provided unconditional support (the blank cheque), but the initiative and ultimatum came from Austria-Hungary.
- Claiming Russia mobilised solely because of a formal treaty with Serbia; correction: Russia had no formal military alliance with Serbia but mobilised due to pan-Slavism, strategic interests, and the need to restore prestige after the Bosnian Crisis.
- Overlooking the bombardment of Belgrade or dating it incorrectly; correction: explicitly mention the bombardment of Belgrade on 29 July 1914 (following the declaration of war on 28 July) as the physical outbreak of the war, ending the diplomatic phase of the July Crisis.
- Error: Claiming Britain went to war solely because of the 1839 Treaty of London. Correction: Acknowledge that while the treaty was the official casus belli, strategic concerns about the balance of power and naval security were crucial motives.
- Error: Stating the Schlieffen Plan was executed exactly as originally designed. Correction: Note that Moltke modified Schlieffen's original plan, weakening the right wing, which impacted its implementation and ultimate failure.
- Error: Assuming mobilisation meant immediate combat. Correction: Explain that mobilisation was the preparation and movement of troops, which in 1914 was seen as tantamount to a declaration of war due to rigid railway timetables.
- Error: Stating the sinking of the Lusitania immediately caused the USA to enter the war. Correction: Clarify that the Lusitania sank in 1915, and while it damaged US-German relations, the USA did not declare war until 1917 following the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare.
- Error: Assuming Italy was always allied with Britain and France. Correction: Emphasise that Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance before the war but declared neutrality in 1914 because the alliance was defensive.
- Error: Ignoring the economic ties between the USA and the Allies. Correction: Include the significant loans and trade between the USA and the Entente powers as a crucial underlying motive for American entry.