The response to apartheid, c1948–59 — Edexcel A-Level History
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The response to apartheid, c1948–59 explained
The response to apartheid, c1948–59 covers 4 specification points, including Race, segregation and discrimination;… and Reasons for the National Party victory 1948,….
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Life in South Africa c1948: race, segregation and discrimination; urbanisation and industrialisation, including township life; rural society; Afrikaner culture and politics; the influence of Britain.
By 1948 South Africa was a society built on racial hierarchy: segregation laws and customs restricted Black, Coloured and Indian people in land, work, movement and politics. Industrialisation, especially mining and manufacturing, drew workers to cities such as Johannesburg, where townships like Soweto grew as segregated dormitories with poor housing, overcrowding and migrant labour. Rural life remained harsh: African tenant farmers and labourers faced insecure tenure, while white-owned farms depended on cheap labour. Afrikaner culture and politics centred on language, religion and a shared sense of grievance, expressed through bodies such as the Broederbond and the National Party. Britain's influence persisted through trade, investment, Commonwealth membership and constitutional links, though Afrikaner nationalism increasingly challenged it.
Reasons for the National Party victory 1948, including the impact of the Second World War, the growth of Afrikaner nationalism, and international pressures for change.
The National Party won the 1948 election partly because the Second World War divided white opinion: Afrikaners resented South Africa's entry on Britain's side, wartime industrial growth changed the labour market, and Black urbanisation raised white fears about jobs and social order. Afrikaner nationalism grew through language, religion, the Broederbond and organisations that mobilised a distinct identity and demanded political power. International pressures for change, including criticism of racial policies and the early years of the United Nations, made some white voters defensive and receptive to a party promising firm racial control. The result was a narrow victory under a system that weighted rural constituencies, allowing the National Party to begin implementing apartheid.
Codifying and implementing apartheid, 1948–59: strengthening the National Party; apartheid laws; pass laws and education; the Tomlinson Report and Bantustans; political suppression and the Treason Trial.
After 1948 the National Party (NP) consolidated power by winning support among white voters, especially Afrikaners, and by removing parliamentary obstacles. It passed apartheid laws such as the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and the Population Registration Act (1950), which classified people by race. Pass laws controlled African movement and employment, while the Bantu Education Act (1953) extended state control over schooling. The Tomlinson Report (1955) proposed separate development, building on the earlier Bantu Authorities Act (1951) to shape the Bantustans. Political suppression included banning orders and the Treason Trial (1956–61).
African nationalism, 1948–59: political opposition in 1948; the revival of the African National Congress (ANC); the Youth League and the Defiance Campaign; rural resistance; the Freedom Charter; the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC).
In 1948 African political opposition was fragmented, but the ANC was revived through the Youth League, which pushed for mass action. The Defiance Campaign (1952) used non-violent civil disobedience, while rural resistance included the 1950 Witzieshoek rebellion and later the Sekhukhuneland revolt. The Freedom Charter (1955) set out a vision of a non-racial South Africa. The PAC broke away in 1959, favouring Africanist and more confrontational methods. These developments show how African nationalism moved from petitioning to mass mobilisation and eventually to splinter groups.
Your focus
- Describe the main features of racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa around 1948.
- Explain how urbanisation and industrialisation shaped township life and rural society.
- Assess the significance of Afrikaner culture and politics and of British influence in South Africa around 1948.
Show all 12 objectives
- Explain how the Second World War affected white South African politics before 1948.
- Describe the growth of Afrikaner nationalism and its role in the National Party victory.
- Assess the relative importance of domestic and international factors in the National Party's 1948 election victory.
- Describe how the National Party strengthened its political position between 1948 and 1959.
- Explain the purpose and impact of at least three apartheid laws, including pass laws and education legislation.
- Evaluate the significance of the Tomlinson Report, Bantustans, and the Treason Trial in the implementation of apartheid.
- Students can outline the state of African political opposition in 1948 and explain how the ANC was revived.
- Students can describe the methods and impact of the Defiance Campaign and rural resistance.
- Students can compare the aims of the Freedom Charter and the PAC, and explain why the PAC broke away.
The response to apartheid, c1948–59 exam tips
Marking Points
- Explains how race shaped everyday life through segregation and discrimination in residence, education, employment and public facilities.
- Links urbanisation and industrialisation to the growth of townships and the experience of township life, including housing shortages and migrant labour.
- Describes rural society, including the position of African tenants, labourers and landless people on white-owned farms.
- Explains Afrikaner culture and politics, including language, religion, the Broederbond and the growth of Afrikaner nationalism.
- Assesses the influence of Britain through trade, investment, Commonwealth ties and constitutional arrangements.
- Uses specific examples, such as Johannesburg and its townships, to support general points about life in South Africa.
- Explains how the Second World War divided white South African opinion and contributed to support for the National Party.
- Links wartime industrial growth and Black urbanisation to white anxieties about labour, housing and social order.
- Explains the growth of Afrikaner nationalism through language, religion, the Broederbond and political mobilisation.
- Assesses how international pressures for change, including United Nations criticism, affected white politics and the National Party's appeal.
- Explains how the electoral system, including rural weighting, helped convert minority support into a parliamentary majority.
- Reaches a judgement on the relative importance of wartime, nationalist and international factors in the 1948 victory.
- Explains how the NP strengthened its position after 1948, for example by winning the 1948 election, benefiting from rural weighting, and later enlarging the Senate in 1955.
- Identifies and explains key apartheid laws, such as the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and the Population Registration Act (1950), showing how they codified racial separation.
- Analyses pass laws and education: the Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act (1952) required African men over 16 to carry reference books (women were covered later), and the Bantu Education Act (1953) placed African schooling under central state control.
- Evaluates the Tomlinson Report (1955) and Bantustans: the report rejected permanent urbanisation of Africans and recommended development of reserves, building on the 1951 Bantu Authorities Act.
- Assesses political suppression and the Treason Trial: the Suppression of Communism Act (1950) was used against opponents, and 156 people were arrested in 1956 and charged with treason, ending in acquittal in 1961.
- Describes political opposition in 1948: the ANC was moderate, the All-African Convention and other groups existed, but opposition was divided and lacked mass support.
- Explains the revival of the ANC: the Youth League (formed 1944) influenced the ANC's Programme of Action (1949), which adopted mass action, boycotts, and civil disobedience.
- Analyses the Youth League and the Defiance Campaign: the 1952 campaign involved volunteers breaking unjust laws, leading to mass arrests and increased ANC membership, though it also faced government repression.
- Examines rural resistance: examples include the 1950 Witzieshoek rebellion against cattle culling and the 1950s Sekhukhuneland revolt against Bantu Authorities, showing resistance beyond urban areas.
- Evaluates the Freedom Charter (1955) and the PAC: the Charter was adopted at the Congress of the People, declaring South Africa belongs to all who live in it; the PAC broke away in 1959, rejecting multiracialism and advocating Africanist nationalism.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Plan by theme: race, urban and industrial change, rural society, Afrikaner culture and politics, and British influence.
- 💡Anchor each theme with a precise example, such as a named city, township or institution, rather than general assertion.
- 💡When discussing Britain, distinguish economic, political and constitutional forms of influence and link each to South African responses.
- 💡Organise the answer around the three named factors and reach a supported judgement on their relative weight.
- 💡Use precise evidence, such as wartime divisions, the Broederbond or United Nations criticism, to support each factor.
- 💡Explain the electoral system when discussing how the National Party turned support into power, rather than implying it won a popular majority.
- 💡When discussing apartheid laws, link each law to its purpose and impact rather than listing them; for example, explain how the Population Registration Act enabled other racial classifications.
- 💡For the Treason Trial, explain its significance as both a legal and political event: it demonstrated state suppression but also the resilience of opposition.
- 💡When discussing the Defiance Campaign, explain its methods and consequences, such as the use of passive resistance and the government's response, rather than just naming it.
- 💡For rural resistance, use specific examples like the Witzieshoek rebellion or Sekhukhuneland revolt to show the breadth of opposition.
- 💡Compare the ANC and PAC aims and methods to highlight the shift towards Africanist nationalism and the fragmentation of opposition.
Common Mistakes
- Treating apartheid as beginning only in 1948; correction: recognise that segregation and discrimination were already entrenched before 1948, and 1948 marks a political turning point.
- Describing townships only as places of poverty; correction: also note community life, churches, schools and informal economic activity.
- Assuming Britain had no influence after 1948; correction: explain continuing economic, Commonwealth and constitutional links alongside growing Afrikaner nationalist pressure.
- Claiming the National Party won a majority of votes; correction: it won the most seats under a system that favoured rural constituencies, not a majority of the popular vote.
- Treating Afrikaner nationalism as a single unified movement; correction: recognise different groups and tensions within Afrikaner politics.
- Ignoring international factors; correction: explain how external criticism and the early United Nations shaped white defensiveness and National Party rhetoric.
- Treating apartheid as only a set of laws passed in 1948; correct by noting apartheid was implemented gradually through legislation, administrative action, and enforcement across the 1950s.
- Confusing the chronology of Bantustan policy; correct by noting the Bantu Authorities Act (1951) preceded the Tomlinson Report (1955), which then recommended further separate development.
- Stating that the Treason Trial ended in conviction; correct by noting the Treason Trial ended in acquittal for all defendants in 1961, after charges were reduced and the case collapsed.
- Error: claiming the ANC was always a mass-based organisation. Correction: in 1948 the ANC was small and moderate; it was revived through the Youth League and the 1949 Programme of Action.
- Error: confusing the Freedom Charter with a government policy. Correction: the Freedom Charter was a statement of principles adopted by the Congress of the People, not a law or government document.
- Error: stating the PAC was formed before the Freedom Charter. Correction: the PAC was formed in 1959, after the Freedom Charter was adopted in 1955.