1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only) – The epoch of palace coups, 1725–1762 — AQA A-Level History

The epoch of palace coups spans the volatile period between the death of Peter the Great in 1725 and the accession of Catherine II in 1762. Lacking a designated heir due to Peter I's 1722 Law of Succession, the Russian throne became the prize in a series of dramatic political seizures orchestrated by court factions and facilitated by the elite Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky Imperial Guard regiments.

This era is critical for understanding AQA A-Level Component 1E because it tests whether the modernising transformations of Peter I were enduring or fragile. Despite frequent changes of monarch—including the reigns of Catherine I, Peter II, Anna, Ivan VI, Elizabeth, and Peter III—the period consolidated noble socio-economic domination, firmly entrenched serfdom, and preserved the fundamental machinery of Russian autocracy.

• →The 1722 Law of Succession: Promulgated by Peter I, this decree abolished primogeniture and granted the reigning monarch the right to name any successor, directly fostering succession crises when rulers died intestate.
• →The Role of the Imperial Guards: Regiments such as the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky acted as political kingmakers, reflecting the interests of court cliques and the dvorianstvo.
• →Corporate Noble Privileges: Concessions granted by monarchs to secure noble loyalty, including the reduction of service terms (1736), the establishment of the Noble Land Bank (1754), and the abolition of compulsory service (1762).
• →Bironovshchina: The historiographical term referring to the perceived reign of terror and German factional dominance under Empress Anna's favourite, Ernst Johann von Biron, though modern historians challenge its anti-Russian extent.

• Explain the function of the Table of Ranks (1722) in creating a meritocratic Service State that bound the nobility to the autocrat.
• Analyse the impact of the Holy Synod in removing the Church's political independence and transforming it into a department of state.
• Evaluate how the introduction of the soul tax (poll tax) and military conscription solidified the institution of serfdom and widened the social chasm.
• Assess the consequences of Russia's new status as a European great power, particularly the financial and military burdens of maintaining Baltic territories and a standing army.
• Explain how Peter the Great's 1722 Law of Succession, which allowed the monarch to choose their heir, inadvertently caused decades of disputed successions.
• Analyse the formation and function of the Supreme State Council as an oligarchic body attempting to control the monarch, particularly during the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II.
• Evaluate the significance of the 1730 'Conditions' as a failed constitutional attempt by the Supreme State Council to limit autocratic power.
• Assess the role of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and other Guards regiments as 'kingmakers' who used military force to resolve succession crises, such as in 1725 and 1741.
• Explain the role of the Preobrazhensky Guards and anti-German sentiment in Elizabeth's 1741 accession to the throne.
• Assess the impact of Moscow University (1755) and the Academy of Arts (1757) on Russian education and cultural Westernisation.
• Evaluate the significance and limitations of her legal reforms, particularly the abolition of capital punishment.
• Analyse the shift towards indirect taxation on salt and alcohol and its socio-economic impact on the peasantry.
• Trace the gradual relaxation of compulsory noble service, culminating in the 1762 Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility.
• Explain how the redefinition of the Service State altered the traditional social contract between the autocrat, the nobility, and the peasantry.
• Detail the legislative changes that worsened the condition of serfs, such as nobles gaining the right to exile serfs to Siberia in 1760.
• Analyse the causes of serf unrest, focusing on increased taxation, conscription, and the unchecked power of landowners.
• Assess the strategic motivations behind Russian intervention in the War of the Polish Succession to counter French influence.
• Evaluate the outcomes of the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739), specifically the terms of the Treaty of Niš which denied Russia a Black Sea fleet and confirmed the failure to secure the Crimea.
• Analyse the impact of Russian military successes during the Seven Years War, such as the occupation of Berlin in 1760, on its status as a major European power.
• Examine the domestic and diplomatic consequences of Peter III's alliance with Frederick the Great in 1762, which nullified previous Russian sacrifices.
• Assess the continuity of Petrine administrative structures, such as the Senate and the Holy Synod, during the era of palace coups.
• Evaluate the changing relationship between the autocracy and the nobility, focusing on the gradual dismantling of compulsory state service by 1762.
• Analyse the role of the Guards regiments as kingmakers in 18th-century Russian politics, culminating in the 1762 coup.
• Examine the immediate causes of Catherine the Great's accession, including Peter III's alienation of the army, the Church, and the nobility.

• 💡Link the concept of the Service State directly to the growing cultural and economic divide between the Westernised gentry and the traditional serfs.
• 💡When discussing international affairs, use the Great Northern War as the catalyst for Russia's permanent entanglement in European power politics.
• 💡Evaluate Peter's legacy as a dual-edged sword: it modernised the state apparatus but created deep structural resentments that fuelled the subsequent palace coups.
• 💡Use the 1730 succession crisis as a primary case study to contrast the oligarchic ambitions of the Supreme State Council with the autocratic preferences of the wider nobility.
• 💡Highlight the paradox of the era: while the monarch held absolute theoretical power, their practical survival depended entirely on the loyalty of the Preobrazhensky Regiment.
• 💡Connect the disputed successions back to Peter the Great's legacy, specifically his failure to secure a clear, legitimate line of succession before his death.
• 💡Link Elizabeth's educational reforms directly to the broader theme of Westernisation initiated by Peter the Great.
• 💡Use the abolition of the death penalty as a specific example of early Enlightenment influence on Russian autocracy.
• 💡When discussing taxation, contrast the growing financial burden on the peasantry with the increasing privileges of the nobility.
• 💡Contrast the growing liberties of the nobility with the increasing subjugation of the serfs to highlight the era's social polarisation.
• 💡Use the 1762 Manifesto as a turning point when evaluating changes to the Petrine Service State.
• 💡Connect the causes of serf unrest directly to the economic demands of the state and the absolute authority granted to landowners.
• 💡Link foreign policy outcomes to domestic stability, noting how Peter III's withdrawal from the Seven Years War alienated the army and facilitated his overthrow.
• 💡Contrast the successful projection of power in Poland with the logistical and diplomatic failures in the Crimea to provide a balanced assessment of foreign affairs.
• 💡Use specific treaties, such as the Treaty of Niš (1739), to substantiate arguments about the limitations of Russian expansion in the south.
• 💡When evaluating the survival of Petrine reforms, distinguish between institutional continuity (which remained strong) and social policies regarding the nobility (which shifted significantly).
• 💡Use Peter III's 1762 Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility as a key turning point in the evolution of the Russian social structure.
• 💡Connect foreign policy failures (like the withdrawal from the Seven Years War) directly to domestic instability and Catherine's successful coup.
• 💡Always distinguish between institutional autocratic power and the personal power of individual monarchs; autocracy as a system remained supreme even when occupied by infant or puppet rulers.
• 💡Use precise dates and names when discussing the succession sequence: Peter I -> Catherine I -> Peter II -> Anna -> Ivan VI -> Elizabeth -> Peter III -> Catherine II. Chronological precision distinguishes top-band essays.

• Assuming the Table of Ranks abolished the nobility; it actually restructured it to base status on state service rather than birthright alone.
• Claiming Peter abolished the Orthodox Church; he abolished the independent Patriarchate, replacing it with the state-controlled Holy Synod.
• Stating that Peter introduced serfdom; serfdom already existed, but Peter's poll tax and conscription significantly worsened the serfs' conditions and entrenched the system.
• Confusing the Supreme State Council with the Senate; the Council was a small, elite advisory body created in 1726 that temporarily overshadowed the Senate.
• Assuming the Preobrazhensky Regiment was a standard army unit; it was an elite Guards regiment composed largely of nobles with significant political influence.
• Claiming the 'Conditions' of 1730 successfully established a constitutional monarchy; Empress Anna tore them up once she secured the support of the Guards and lesser nobility.
• Confusing Elizabeth's accession with Catherine the Great's; Elizabeth overthrew Ivan VI and Anna Leopoldovna in 1741, not Peter III.
• Assuming her legal reforms created a complete, modern legal code; her legislative commission failed to finalise a new code despite abolishing the death penalty.
• Claiming taxation reforms relieved the peasantry; indirect taxes on essentials like salt actually increased the financial burden on the lower classes.
• Stating that the abolition of compulsory service applied to all classes; it only applied to the nobility, while serfs remained bound to the land and their lords.
• Assuming serf unrest was rare before Pugachev; localised uprisings and violent resistance were frequent and escalating throughout the 1725 to 1762 period.
• Claiming Catherine the Great issued the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility; it was actually issued by Peter III in 1762.
• Claiming Russia gained or relinquished the Crimea during the 1735-1739 war. Correction: Clarify that Russian forces withdrew due to logistics and disease, and the Treaty of Niš (1739) confirmed their failure to secure the Crimea or a Black Sea fleet.
• Confusing the War of the Polish Succession with the later Partitions of Poland. Correction: Ensure focus remains on the 1733-1735 succession crisis involving Augustus III, not the territorial divisions under Catherine the Great.
• Assuming Russia lost the Seven Years War militarily. Correction: Explain that Russia was militarily victorious and on the verge of crushing Prussia until Peter III voluntarily withdrew for personal dynastic reasons.
• Stating that all of Peter the Great's reforms were reversed by his successors. Correction: Emphasise that core structural reforms, like the Table of Ranks and the Holy Synod, survived and became entrenched, even as noble service obligations relaxed.
• Assuming Catherine the Great had a strong hereditary claim to the throne. Correction: Clarify that Catherine was a German princess with no Russian blood; she seized power through a military coup against her husband, the legitimate Romanov heir.
• Ignoring Peter III's role in his own downfall. Correction: Detail how Peter III's specific actions, such as the alliance with Prussia and threats to the Orthodox Church, directly provoked the coup that installed Catherine.
• Believing that the guard regiments acted independently as a democratic or popular force; in reality, they operated as armed agents of aristocratic factions and noble self-interest.
• Assuming that Russian foreign and economic development halted completely during these years; Elizabeth's reign saw significant cultural institution-building (e.g., Moscow University in 1755) and military success in the Seven Years' War.

1. 1Week 1, Days 1-3: Map out the chronology of rulers from 1725 to 1762, noting the key ministers, favourites (e.g., Menshikov, Biron, Shuvalov), and mechanisms of accession.
2. 2Week 1, Days 4-7: Analyse state-nobility relations, specifically tracking the progressive erosion of compulsory state service from Peter I to Peter III's 1762 Manifesto.
3. 3Week 2, Days 1-4: Evaluate the 1730 constitutional crisis (the Conditions of the Supreme Privy Council) and assess why Russian constitutionalism failed.
4. 4Week 2, Days 5-7: Practice timed 25-mark essay plans assessing the extent of political stability and the continuity of Petrine reforms across the period.

• 📋25-mark Evaluative Essays: Typically asking whether the period 1725-1762 was characterised primarily by continuity or change in autocratic government.
• 📋Extract/Source Analysis: Evaluating historical extracts assessing the impact of favourites like Biron or the influence of the Imperial Guard regiments on policy.