1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 – only) Crisis of identity, 1920–1945 (A-level only) — AQA A-Level History
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1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 – only) Crisis of identity, 1920–1945 (A-level only) explained
The 1920s saw a resurgence of Republican conservatism under Presidents Harding and Coolidge, characterised by 'laissez-faire' economics, high tariffs like the Fordney-McCumber Act, and a retreat from Progressive interventionism.
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Harding's 'Return to Normalcy' was marred by the Teapot Dome scandal, while Coolidge championed big business, famously declaring 'the chief business of the American people is business'. This conservative consensus fractured under Herbert Hoover when the 1929 Wall Street Crash triggered the Great Depression. Hoover's initial reliance on voluntarism and rugged individualism proved inadequate, forcing him to establish the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which failed to halt the decline.
FD Roosevelt and the New Deals: conflict of ideas over the role of the Federal Government
Franklin D. Roosevelt transformed the Federal Government's role through his First and Second New Deals. Abandoning laissez-faire, FDR used unprecedented federal intervention for relief, recovery, and reform via agencies like the NRA and WPA. This expansion of federal power sparked intense ideological conflict. Conservatives and the Supreme Court argued the New Deal was unconstitutional, famously striking down the AAA. Conversely, left-wing critics like Huey Long argued it failed to redistribute wealth adequately. This conflict over the state's role redefined American political alignments, establishing a liberal consensus while cementing enduring debates over federal authority versus states' rights.
The economy: boom to bust and recovery; structural weaknesses and the impact of the New Deals and the Second World War on economic recovery
The 1920s US economic boom, driven by mass production and consumer credit, masked severe structural weaknesses like agricultural overproduction, unequal wealth distribution, and unregulated banking. These flaws precipitated the 1929 Wall Street Crash and the ensuing 'bust' of the Great Depression. Roosevelt's New Deals attempted recovery through federal intervention, creating agencies like the NRA and PWA to stimulate employment and reform banking. However, the New Deals only provided partial economic recovery. Full recovery was ultimately achieved through the massive industrial mobilisation and federal spending necessitated by the Second World War, which eradicated unemployment and vastly expanded manufacturing capacity.
Social and cultural developments: ‘the Jazz Age’ in the 1920s; new social values and the role of women; the failure of prohibition and its significance; social impact of the Depression and the Second World War
The 1920s 'Jazz Age' introduced new social values, epitomised by the 'flapper' lifestyle, which challenged traditional gender roles and expanded women's social freedoms, though political and economic gains remained limited. Prohibition failed spectacularly, fostering organised crime and widespread defiance, significantly undermining respect for federal law. The Great Depression devastated society, causing mass unemployment, homelessness, and internal migration, profoundly altering family dynamics. Conversely, the Second World War had a transformative social impact, drawing millions of women into the industrial workforce and accelerating African American migration, reshaping American society.
Social, regional and ethnic divisions: countryside versus city; divisions between North, West and South; African-Americans and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan
The 1920s witnessed profound social, regional, and ethnic divisions in the USA. The cultural clash between the traditional, religious countryside and the modern, secular city was epitomised by the Scopes Trial and Prohibition. Regional disparities deepened: the industrial North and booming West contrasted sharply with the impoverished, agrarian South. Ethnic tensions escalated, particularly affecting African-Americans who faced systemic segregation and violence, prompting the Great Migration to Northern cities. This climate of nativism and racial prejudice fuelled the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, which expanded its hatred beyond African-Americans to target Catholics, Jews, and immigrants, claiming millions of members nationwide by the mid-1920s.
The USA and international relations: the extent of isolationism; FDR and the end of isolationism and the Second World War
American foreign policy between 1920 and 1945 transitioned from cautious non-entanglement to global leadership. Following the First World War, the USA embraced isolationism, rejecting the League of Nations and passing the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s to avoid European conflicts. However, this isolationism was never absolute, as evidenced by economic interventions like the Dawes Plan. As totalitarianism threatened global stability, President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) gradually steered the nation away from isolationism. Through policies like Cash and Carry and Lend-Lease, FDR supported the Allies while navigating domestic opposition. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 definitively ended isolationism, plunging the USA into the Second World War.
Your focus
- Explain the key principles of Republican conservatism under Harding and Coolidge.
- Analyse the causes and political consequences of the Teapot Dome scandal.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of Hoover's policies in addressing the onset of the Great Depression.
Show all 18 objectives
- Distinguish between the legislative priorities of the First and Second New Deals.
- Explain the constitutional arguments used by the Supreme Court to strike down early New Deal legislation.
- Evaluate the differing ideological criticisms of the New Deal from both conservative and radical perspectives.
- Explain the structural weaknesses that undermined the 1920s economic boom.
- Evaluate the extent to which the New Deals achieved economic recovery compared to the Second World War.
- Analyse the transition of the US economy from the prosperity of the 1920s to the depression of the 1930s.
- Analyse the extent to which the 'Jazz Age' transformed social values and the role of women in the 1920s.
- Explain the reasons for the failure of Prohibition and evaluate its broader social significance.
- Compare the contrasting social impacts of the Great Depression and the Second World War on American society.
- Analyse the cultural and economic factors driving the divide between rural and urban America in the 1920s.
- Compare the social and economic conditions of the North, West, and South during this period.
- Explain the causes and consequences of the Ku Klux Klan's resurgence and its impact on African-Americans and other minority groups.
- Evaluate the degree to which the United States pursued an isolationist foreign policy during the 1920s and 1930s.
- Analyse the strategies used by Franklin D. Roosevelt to overcome domestic opposition and support the Allies.
- Explain the sequence of events and policies that led to the definitive end of US isolationism and entry into the Second World War.
1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 – only) Crisis of identity, 1920–1945 (A-level only) exam tips
Marking Points
- Identify the core tenets of Republican conservatism in the 1920s, including laissez-faire economics, tax cuts, and protectionist tariffs.
- Evaluate the impact of Harding's 'Return to Normalcy' and the political fallout from the Teapot Dome scandal on public trust.
- Analyse Coolidge's pro-business policies and his ideological commitment to minimal federal intervention in the economy.
- Assess Hoover's response to the Great Depression, contrasting his belief in 'rugged individualism' with his later, limited federal interventions like the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
- Differentiate between the aims and legislative focus of the First New Deal (recovery and relief) and the Second New Deal (reform and social security).
- Analyse the ideological opposition from the political right, including the Liberty League and Supreme Court rulings against federal overreach.
- Evaluate the criticisms from the political left, such as Huey Long's 'Share Our Wealth' movement and Dr Townsend's pension plans.
- Assess how FDR's policies permanently altered the constitutional and practical role of the Federal Government in managing the economy and providing social welfare.
- Identify specific structural weaknesses of the 1920s economy, such as the depressed agricultural sector and the over-reliance on credit.
- Evaluate the transition from boom to bust, linking the Wall Street Crash to underlying economic fragilities rather than viewing it as the sole cause of the Depression.
- Assess the economic impact of the New Deals, noting both successes in banking stabilisation and limitations regarding the persistence of high unemployment.
- Analyse the role of the Second World War in achieving full economic recovery through unprecedented federal spending and the Lend-Lease programme.
- Analyse the cultural shifts of the Jazz Age, including the clash between modern urban values and traditional rural conservatism.
- Evaluate changes in the role of women, contrasting the social liberation of the 1920s with the practical economic necessities of the 1930s and 1940s.
- Assess the significance of Prohibition's failure, focusing on the rise of organised crime and the exposure of federal enforcement limitations.
- Compare the social impacts of the Depression, such as poverty and migration, with those of the Second World War, including workforce expansion and demographic shifts.
- Explain the rural-urban divide, focusing on cultural conflicts like Prohibition and religious fundamentalism versus modern urban lifestyles.
- Analyse regional economic and social differences, contrasting the industrialised North and expanding West with the economically stagnant, agricultural South.
- Evaluate the experiences of African-Americans, including the push and pull factors of the Great Migration and the reality of de facto segregation in the North.
- Assess the reasons for the rise of the Second Ku Klux Klan, noting its broadened nativist agenda targeting immigrants, Catholics, and Jews alongside African-Americans.
- Assess the extent of US isolationism in the 1920s and 1930s, noting the rejection of the League of Nations alongside continued economic diplomacy.
- Analyse the impact of the Neutrality Acts (1935-1939) as legislative attempts to prevent the USA from being drawn into foreign conflicts.
- Evaluate FDR's role in gradually shifting US foreign policy from strict neutrality to active support for the Allies through Cash and Carry and the Lend-Lease Act.
- Explain the significance of the Pearl Harbor attack as the catalyst that definitively ended American isolationism and initiated full entry into the Second World War.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Use specific legislative examples, such as the Fordney-McCumber Tariff or the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, to demonstrate the practical application of Republican conservatism.
- 💡When evaluating Hoover, balance the traditional view of his 'do-nothing' presidency against revisionist perspectives that highlight his unprecedented, albeit limited, federal interventions.
- 💡Link the economic policies of Harding and Coolidge directly to the structural weaknesses that exacerbated the 1929 Wall Street Crash.
- 💡Use the 'alphabet agencies' (e.g., TVA, CCC, WPA) as specific evidence to demonstrate the expanding scope of federal intervention.
- 💡When discussing the 'conflict of ideas', ensure you balance the conservative critique of federal overreach with the radical critique that FDR was too conservative.
- 💡Analyse FDR's 'court-packing' plan of 1937 as a key example of the constitutional crisis generated by the expanding role of the Federal Government.
- 💡When evaluating the New Deal's economic impact, distinguish between short-term relief measures and long-term structural reforms.
- 💡Use specific statistics, such as unemployment rates dropping from 25 percent in 1933 to under 2 percent by 1943, to demonstrate the comparative impact of the New Deal and the Second World War.
- 💡Link the structural weaknesses of the 1920s directly to the severity of the 1930s bust to build a cohesive analytical argument.
- 💡Contrast the social conservatism of rural America with the progressive 'Jazz Age' culture of the cities to demonstrate nuance in 1920s social values.
- 💡When discussing the social impact of the Depression, reference specific phenomena like the Dust Bowl migration to provide concrete evidence.
- 💡Evaluate how the Second World War acted as a catalyst for long-term social change, particularly regarding women's employment and civil rights expectations.
- 💡Use specific examples like the 1925 Scopes Trial to illustrate the ideological clash between traditional rural values and modern urban ideas.
- 💡When discussing regional divisions, link economic disparities to social attitudes, such as how Southern agricultural depression fuelled racial scapegoating.
- 💡Connect the rise of the KKK to broader national themes of nativism and the Red Scare to demonstrate a synoptic understanding of 1920s American society.
- 💡Use the Dawes and Young Plans as evidence to argue that US isolationism in the 1920s was primarily political rather than economic.
- 💡Trace the evolution of FDR's foreign policy by chronologically linking the Quarantine Speech, Cash and Carry, and Lend-Lease to show the gradual erosion of neutrality.
- 💡Consider the role of domestic pressure groups, such as the America First Committee, when evaluating the challenges FDR faced in ending isolationism.
Common Mistakes
- Claiming Hoover did absolutely nothing to combat the Depression; correction: Hoover did intervene later in his presidency, such as creating the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, though it was insufficient.
- Confusing the specific policies of Harding and Coolidge; correction: attribute the 'Return to Normalcy' and Teapot Dome to Harding, and the strict pro-business, minimal-government philosophy specifically to Coolidge.
- Assuming Republican conservatism meant no government action at all; correction: Republicans actively used government power to support business, such as raising tariffs and breaking strikes, rather than being purely hands-off.
- Treating the New Deal as a single, cohesive ideological programme; correction: distinguish between the First and Second New Deals, noting the shift from emergency economic planning to long-term social reform.
- Stating that the Supreme Court opposed all New Deal legislation; correction: specify that the Court struck down specific acts like the NRA and AAA on constitutional grounds of states' rights and executive overreach.
- Assuming the New Deal ended the Great Depression; correction: clarify that while the New Deal provided relief and reform, it was the industrial mobilisation for the Second World War that ultimately ended the economic depression.
- Claiming the Wall Street Crash was the only cause of the Great Depression; correct by explaining the underlying structural weaknesses like unequal wealth distribution and agricultural decline.
- Stating the New Deal completely ended the Great Depression; correct by noting that while it provided relief and reform, full economic recovery and full employment only occurred with the onset of the Second World War.
- Ignoring the agricultural sector during the 1920s boom; correct by highlighting that farmers experienced a 'bust' throughout the 1920s due to overproduction and falling prices.
- Assuming the 'flapper' lifestyle represented the experience of all American women in the 1920s; correct by acknowledging that these new social values were largely confined to young, urban, middle-class women.
- Stating Prohibition reduced crime; correct by explaining that it significantly increased organised crime and corruption, leading to its eventual repeal.
- Treating the social impact of the Second World War as entirely positive; correct by noting the persistence of racial segregation and the internment of Japanese Americans alongside employment gains.
- Assuming the KKK only operated in the South; correction: note that the Second KKK was a national organisation with significant political influence in Northern and Western states like Indiana and Oregon.
- Claiming the Great Migration completely resolved African-American hardships; correction: explain that while escaping Southern Jim Crow laws, migrants faced severe de facto segregation, race riots, and economic discrimination in Northern cities.
- Treating the rural-urban divide as purely economic; correction: emphasise that the countryside versus city division was also deeply ideological, involving clashes over religion, morality, and immigration.
- Describing 1920s US policy as total isolationism; correction: clarify that the USA remained highly active economically and diplomatically, such as through the Washington Naval Conference and the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
- Stating that FDR wanted to enter the Second World War from the beginning; correction: explain that FDR recognised the fascist threat but had to carefully navigate strong domestic isolationist sentiment and anti-war legislation.
- Confusing the terms of Cash and Carry with Lend-Lease; correction: distinguish that Cash and Carry required belligerents to pay in advance and transport goods themselves, whereas Lend-Lease allowed the President to lend or lease arms without immediate payment.