2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – The Sixties, 1964–1970 — AQA A-Level History
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Harold Wilson's Labour governments of 1964 to 1970 marked a pivotal era of social reform, economic instability, and international readjustment in modern Britain. This period witnessed landmark liberalising social legislation alongside chronic balance of payments crises, the 1967 sterling devaluation, and failed trade union reform.
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – The Sixties, 1964–1970 explained
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – The Sixties, 1964–1970 covers 4 specification points, including Wilson's ideology and leadership; economic… and Private members' bills and the end of capital….
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Wilson and the Labour governments: Wilson's ideology and leadership; economic policies and problems; devaluation; industrial relations; the trade unions; other domestic policies; Labour divisions; the beginning of the 'troubles' in Northern Ireland; the end of post-war consensus; loss of 1970 election
Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 Labour governments aimed to modernise Britain, reflecting his pragmatic ideology and leadership. However, economic problems dominated, culminating in the 1967 devaluation of the pound. Attempts to reform industrial relations and curb trade union power via 'In Place of Strife' failed due to severe Labour divisions. Other domestic policies included liberal social reforms. Meanwhile, the late 1960s saw the beginning of the 'troubles' in Northern Ireland, requiring troop deployment. These compounding crises, alongside strikes, signalled the end of the post-war consensus and contributed to Labour's loss in the 1970 election.
Liberal reforming legislation: private members' bills and the end of capital punishment; divorce reform; the legalisation of abortion; the legalisation of homosexual relations; educational reform
The 1960s saw profound liberal reforming legislation, largely driven by Private Members' Bills rather than official government policy, though supported by Home Secretary Roy Jenkins. The Murder Act 1965 suspended and later ended capital punishment. The Divorce Reform Act 1969 allowed 'no-fault' divorce after two years of separation. The Abortion Act 1967 legalised abortion under specific medical conditions. The Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised homosexual relations between consenting men over 21 in private. Educational reform saw the rapid expansion of comprehensive schools, replacing the tripartite system via Circular 10/65, alongside the creation of the Open University to widen higher education access.
Social and cultural change: the expansion of the mass media; growth in leisure activities; the impact of scientific developments; the reduction in censorship; progress towards female equality; changes in moral attitudes; youth culture and the 'permissive society'; anti-Vietnam war riots; issues of immigration and race
The 1960s saw rapid social and cultural change, driven by the expansion of mass media, notably television, and a growth in leisure activities like package holidays. Scientific developments, particularly the contraceptive pill, impacted changes in moral attitudes and progress towards female equality. The reduction in censorship, highlighted by the 1968 Theatres Act, fostered a more open culture. Youth culture flourished, contributing to the idea of a 'permissive society'. Political activism surged, evidenced by the 1968 anti-Vietnam war riots in Grosvenor Square. Furthermore, issues of immigration and race became highly contentious, marked by Enoch Powell's 1968 'Rivers of Blood' speech and the restrictive Commonwealth Immigrants Act.
Relations with and policies towards USA, particularly issue of Vietnam; response to world affairs and relations with Europe; decolonisation including 'withdrawal East of Suez' and Rhodesia.
During the 1960s, Harold Wilson’s Labour government faced complex foreign policy challenges. Relations with the USA were strained by the Vietnam War; Wilson offered moral support to President Johnson but refused to send British troops, balancing domestic anti-war sentiment with the need for American financial backing. In Europe, Britain’s changing global role prompted a second application to join the EEC in 1967, which was again vetoed by de Gaulle. Decolonisation accelerated due to economic pressures, culminating in the 1968 decision to withdraw British military forces 'East of Suez' by 1971. Concurrently, the government struggled with Rhodesia, where Ian Smith’s white minority regime declared Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965, defying British attempts at negotiated settlement.
Your focus
- Evaluate the success of Wilson's economic policies, focusing on the 1967 devaluation.
- Analyse the relationship between the Labour government and trade unions, particularly regarding 'In Place of Strife'.
- Explain the factors that led to the Labour Party's defeat in the 1970 general election.
Show all 12 objectives
- Identify the key pieces of liberal reforming legislation passed between 1964 and 1970.
- Explain the role of Private Members' Bills in passing controversial social legislation.
- Assess the limitations and societal impact of the educational and moral reforms of the 1960s.
- Describe the key drivers of social and cultural change in the 1960s, including media and science.
- Analyse the extent to which Britain became a 'permissive society' during this period.
- Evaluate the impact of immigration and race relations on British society and politics in the late 1960s.
- Analyse the reasons for Wilson's refusal to commit troops to the Vietnam War.
- Evaluate the causes and consequences of the decision to withdraw military forces East of Suez.
- Explain the challenges faced by the British government in responding to the Rhodesian UDI.
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 – The Sixties, 1964–1970 exam tips
Topic Overview
The 1964 to 1970 Labour administration led by Harold Wilson represented an era of intense political tension between ambition and reality. Elected on a manifesto promising to modernise Britain through the 'white heat of technological revolution', Wilson inherited an £800 million balance of payments deficit that immediately forced the government into reactive financial management.
Simultaneously, the period witnessed dramatic shifts in British society, characterised by the emergence of the 'permissive society', youth counterculture, and landmark liberal reforms in civil liberties. Internationally, Britain faced the agonising contraction of its global status through the East of Suez withdrawal and repeated rejections of EEC membership, making this period fundamental to understanding modern British decline and cultural transformation.
Key Concepts
- →The 'White Heat' and the DEA: Wilson's vision of technocratic state planning, exemplified by the Department of Economic Affairs and the Ministry of Technology, which clashed directly with Treasury fiscal orthodoxy.
- →Sterling Crises and Devaluation (1967): The protracted, politically damaging battle to defend the value of the pound at $2.80, culminating in the 14% devaluation to $2.40 and strict deflation under Roy Jenkins.
- →The Permissive Society and Social Reform: The passage of major social legislation (Abortion Act, Sexual Offences Act, Murder Act, Divorce Reform Act) enabled by Home Secretary Roy Jenkins.
- →Industrial Relations and 'In Place of Strife' (1969): Barbara Castle's failed white paper aiming to curb wildcat strikes, demonstrating the immense political power of trade unions and backbench Labour MPs over the executive.
- →Foreign Policy Realism: Britain's military withdrawal from 'East of Suez' by 1971, de Gaulle's second EEC veto in 1967, and Wilson's delicate balancing act over the Vietnam War.
Marking Points
- Evaluate the extent to which Wilson's leadership and ideology successfully united the Labour Party.
- Analyse the causes of the 1967 devaluation and its political impact on the Labour government's economic credibility.
- Assess the significance of 'In Place of Strife' in highlighting the deteriorating relationship between the Labour government and trade unions.
- Explain the origins of the 'troubles' in Northern Ireland and the British government's response up to 1970.
- Discuss how economic struggles and industrial unrest contributed to the breakdown of the post-war consensus and the 1970 election defeat.
- Explain the mechanism of Private Members' Bills and Roy Jenkins' role in facilitating parliamentary time for them.
- Detail the conditions of the Abortion Act 1967, such as requiring the agreement of two doctors, and the Sexual Offences Act 1967, such as the age of consent being set at 21.
- Analyse the impact of the Divorce Reform Act 1969 on society, particularly the introduction of 'irretrievable breakdown' as grounds for divorce.
- Evaluate the shift towards comprehensive education under Anthony Crosland and the establishment of the Open University as key educational reforms.
- Assess the influence of television and print media in shaping public opinion and spreading new cultural trends.
- Evaluate the impact of the contraceptive pill on women's liberation, employment opportunities, and shifting moral attitudes.
- Analyse the tension between the emerging 'permissive society', characterised by youth culture and reduced censorship, and the conservative backlash.
- Examine the causes and consequences of racial tensions, including the impact of Enoch Powell's speech and the government's legislative responses to immigration.
- Discuss the significance of student protests and anti-Vietnam war riots as expressions of a newly politicised youth culture.
- Explain Wilson's balancing act regarding the Vietnam War, maintaining the special relationship without committing British military forces.
- Analyse the economic and political motivations behind the 1967 EEC application and the impact of de Gaulle's veto on British foreign policy.
- Evaluate the financial pressures, particularly the 1967 devaluation crisis, that forced the accelerated 'withdrawal East of Suez'.
- Assess the failure of British diplomacy, including the Tiger and Fearless talks, to resolve the Rhodesian UDI crisis.
Examiner Tips
- 💡Contrast Wilson's modernising rhetoric with the reality of his government's economic and industrial struggles.
- 💡Use 'In Place of Strife' as a key example of Labour divisions and the challenge of managing trade union power.
- 💡Connect the domestic policy challenges, such as industrial relations and economic crises, directly to the unexpected loss of the 1970 election.
- 💡Link the success of these reforms to the specific political climate and the influence of Roy Jenkins as Home Secretary.
- 💡Use specific dates and names of key MPs, such as David Steel for abortion and Leo Abse for sexual offences, to strengthen your evidence base.
- 💡Contrast the progressive nature of the legislation with the often conservative public opinion of the time to evaluate the extent of social change.
- 💡Use the concept of the 'permissive society' critically, debating whether it was a media construct or a genuine reflection of widespread social change.
- 💡Connect scientific developments, like the contraceptive pill, directly to both demographic changes and the growth of second-wave feminism.
- 💡When discussing immigration, balance the narrative of racial tension with the passing of the Race Relations Acts of 1965 and 1968 to show a nuanced understanding of government policy.
- 💡Link foreign policy decisions directly to domestic economic issues, such as how the balance of payments deficit influenced the East of Suez withdrawal.
- 💡Contrast Wilson's handling of the USA over Vietnam with previous Prime Ministers' approaches to the 'Special Relationship'.
- 💡Use the Rhodesian crisis to illustrate the limits of British imperial power and influence in the post-war era.
- 💡Always link political developments directly to economic constraints: Wilson's legislative choices were almost always bounded by sterling weakness, IMF loan conditions, and the need to protect foreign currency reserves.
- 💡Differentiate clearly between the roles of key ministers: do not refer vaguely to 'the government' when assessing figures such as George Brown (DEA), James Callaghan (Treasury/Home Office), Roy Jenkins (Home Office/Treasury), and Barbara Castle (Employment).
- 💡Evaluate change versus continuity when discussing the permissive society: use statistical and contextual counterweights (e.g., Mary Whitehouse's Clean-Up TV campaign, public opinion polls) to show social change was contested.
Common Mistakes
- Confusing devaluation with inflation or a general economic depression. Correction: Define devaluation specifically as the reduction of the pound's exchange rate against the dollar in 1967 to make exports cheaper.
- Stating that 'In Place of Strife' became law. Correction: Clarify that 'In Place of Strife' was a white paper that was abandoned due to intense opposition from trade unions and Labour MPs.
- Attributing the start of the Northern Ireland 'troubles' solely to religious differences. Correction: Explain the underlying issues of civil rights, gerrymandering, and housing discrimination against the Catholic minority.
- Claiming the Labour government officially sponsored all liberal legislation; correction: state that most were Private Members' Bills supported by individual MPs and facilitated by the Home Secretary.
- Stating that the Sexual Offences Act 1967 fully legalised homosexuality; correction: clarify that it only decriminalised homosexual acts between two consenting men over 21 in private, leaving many restrictions in place.
- Asserting that capital punishment was permanently abolished in 1965; correction: note that the 1965 Act suspended it for five years, and it was permanently abolished by a subsequent vote in 1969.
- Assuming the 'permissive society' affected all demographics equally; correction: acknowledge that changes in moral attitudes were largely concentrated among the youth and in urban areas, while many older or rural citizens remained conservative.
- Stating that the 1960s achieved full female equality; correction: note that while progress was made, such as the introduction of the pill and the 1970 Equal Pay Act, significant inequalities in pay and societal expectations persisted.
- Confusing the timeline of immigration legislation; correction: distinguish between the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act passed by the Conservatives and the 1968 Act passed by Labour which tightened controls further.
- Claiming Britain sent combat troops to Vietnam; correction: Britain provided diplomatic support but Wilson explicitly refused to send military forces.
- Confusing the 1961 and 1967 EEC applications; correction: Macmillan made the first application in 1961, whereas Wilson made the second application in 1967.
- Stating that the 'withdrawal East of Suez' was purely a strategic choice; correction: the withdrawal was primarily driven by severe economic constraints and the need to reduce defence spending.
- Misconception: Harold Wilson was an ideological left-winger who sought to transform Britain into a socialist state. Correction: Wilson was a pragmatic centrist whose primary political skill lay in party management and balancing the left (Benn, Foot) and right (Jenkins, Callaghan) factions of the Labour Party.
- Misconception: Britain actively sent troops to support the US in the Vietnam War. Correction: Despite intense diplomatic pressure and financial leverage from President Lyndon B. Johnson, Wilson refused to commit British armed forces, limiting support to diplomatic and moral backing.
- Misconception: The 1960s social revolution was universally experienced across all classes and regions of Britain. Correction: Permissive attitudes and avant-garde culture were largely concentrated among middle-class youth in metropolitan centres like London, whereas traditional socially conservative attitudes persisted widely across provincial Britain.
Revision Plan
- 1Day 1-2: Review economic policy, comparing the DEA under George Brown with Treasury orthodoxy, the causes and impacts of the 1967 Devaluation, and Jenkins's deflationary budgets.
- 2Day 3-4: Detail the social reforms of 1965–1969 (Abortion, Sexual Offences, Divorce, Capital Punishment, Race Relations) and assess the reality versus myth of the 'permissive society'.
- 3Day 5: Examine industrial relations, focusing on wildcat strikes, the 1966 Seamen's Strike, Barbara Castle's 'In Place of Strife' (1969), and the trade union backlash.
- 4Day 6: Study foreign and imperial policy: Vietnam balancing act, Southern Rhodesia's UDI (1965), De Gaulle's 1967 EEC veto, and the decision to withdraw East of Suez.
- 5Day 7-8: Practice timed essay plans and source evaluation questions focusing on Wilson's leadership and the reasons for Labour's shock election defeat in June 1970.
Exam Question Types
- 📋Extract/Source Analysis (Component 2): Evaluating three contemporary extracts or historical sources on issues such as 'In Place of Strife' or the devaluation crisis for value, tone, and historical content.
- 📋25-mark Evaluative Essays: Thematic questions assessing success/failure across the period, such as economic management, social transformation, or foreign affairs.
- 📋Comparative Policy Essays: Questions that require judging which factor was most significant in Labour's loss of power in 1970 (e.g., trade union disputes versus economic mismanagement).
Command Word Expectations (AQA)
Assess the validity of the view
Requires a sustained, analytical argument evaluating an explicit historical proposition. Students must weigh balanced evidence, deploy precise factual examples, and arrive at an unambiguous, substantiated final verdict throughout the essay.
With reference to the sources and your understanding of the historical context
Demands critical evaluation of provenance (origin, purpose, audience, tone) integrated with precise contextual knowledge to judge how valuable the sources are for investigating a specific historical event or debate.
How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)
Pitfall: Treating the liberalising legislation of the 1960s as the direct work of Wilson's government rather than private members' bills.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Wilson passed the Abortion Act and the Sexual Offences Act because his Labour government wanted to modernise society and create a permissive Britain.
Example improved answer:Crucial social reforms such as David Steel's Abortion Act (1967) and Leo Abse's Sexual Offences Act (1967) were introduced as Private Members' Bills rather than official Labour government policy. However, their passage depended entirely on Home Secretary Roy Jenkins, who allocated essential parliamentary time and offered government drafting support, demonstrating that while the executive did not initiate these laws, it deliberately facilitated their enactment.
Examiner Tip: Distinguish clearly between government-sponsored legislation and Private Members' Bills, always emphasising the specific role of Roy Jenkins in providing government time.
Pitfall: Assuming the devaluation of sterling in November 1967 was an immediate catastrophe with zero economic benefits.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Devaluation from $2.80 to $2.40 was a total failure that destroyed Labour's economic reputation and achieved nothing for Britain's finances.
Example improved answer:While devaluation represented a severe political humiliation that shattered Labour's credibility—especially after Wilson's misleading 'pound in your pocket' broadcast—it was an economic necessity given the persistent balance of payments deficit inherited from Reginald Maudling's 'dash for growth'. Under Roy Jenkins's subsequent deflationary budgets and strict fiscal discipline, devaluation eventually restored Britain's balance of payments to a surplus of over £400 million by 1969–1970.
Examiner Tip: Balance political fallout against longer-term economic indicators; examine both the short-term crisis and the subsequent balance of payments surplus under Jenkins.
Step-by-Step Worked Solutions
Question: Assess the validity of the view that Harold Wilson successfully modernised the British economy between 1964 and 1970.
- 1.Step 1: Define modernisation in context (Wilson's 'white heat of technological revolution', National Plan, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Technology, industrial relations).
- 2.Step 2: Present evidence supporting modernisation (creation of MinTech under Tony Benn, IRC facilitating mergers like British Leyland, Jenkins's economic discipline turning a deficit into a balance of payments surplus by 1969).
- 3.Step 3: Present counter-evidence demonstrating failure (DEA abandoned by 1967 due to Treasury dominance under Callaghan, deflationary measures contradicting growth targets, failure of 'In Place of Strife' in 1969, persistent low productivity compared to EEC rivals).
- 4.Step 4: Reach an overall substantiated judgement (economic modernisation was fundamentally compromised by short-term crisis management, defence of sterling until 1967, and trade union resistance).
Final Answer: The view is largely invalid: despite rhetorical commitment to the 'white heat' of technology and structural innovations like the DEA and MinTech, Wilson's economic policy was hamstrung by an overvalued pound until 1967, Treasury orthodoxy, and an inability to reform industrial relations, leaving Britain with sluggish growth relative to European competitors.
Question: With reference to the sources and your understanding of the historical context, which of the two sources is more valuable in explaining the failure of 'In Place of Strife' in 1969?
- 1.Step 1: Analyse Source A's content and provenance (e.g., Barbara Castle's diary detailing Cabinet divisions and hostility from James Callaghan and trade union leaders).
- 2.Step 2: Evaluate Source A's value and limitations (valuable insider insight into Cabinet rebellion, but potentially defensive of her own policy proposal).
- 3.Step 3: Analyse Source B's content and provenance (e.g., TUC response or Jack Jones public speech articulating union autonomy and defence of voluntary collective bargaining).
- 4.Step 4: Evaluate Source B's value and limitations (captures grassroots union defiance and fear of state legal sanctions, but reflects public rhetoric rather than private bargaining).
- 5.Step 5: Synthesise and conclude on comparative value regarding the specific question focus.
Final Answer: Source A provides greater internal political insight into the Cabinet split orchestrated by Callaghan, while Source B explains the ideological intransigence of the union movement; both are highly valuable, but Source A is more revealing of why Wilson ultimately capitulated to preserve party unity.
Active Recall Memory Test
What was the size of the balance of payments deficit inherited by Wilson's government in October 1964?
Key Fact: £800 million (the 'Maudling deficit').
Which landmark 1967 legislation legalised abortion under specific medical grounds, and who introduced it?
Key Fact: The Abortion Act 1967, introduced as a Private Member's Bill by Liberal MP David Steel.
What were two key penal clauses proposed in Barbara Castle's 1969 white paper 'In Place of Strife'?
Key Fact: A mandatory 28-day 'cooling-off' period before strikes and compulsory strike ballots for union members.
In what year and to what new exchange rate against the US dollar was the British pound devalued under Harold Wilson?
Key Fact: November 1967, devalued by 14.3% from $2.80 to $2.40.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why did Harold Wilson resist devaluing the pound until 1967?
Wilson was determined to avoid devaluation because the Labour Party had previously devalued sterling under Attlee in 1949, giving them an electoral reputation as the party of currency debasement. Furthermore, Wilson was anxious not to undermine Britain's international standing, antagonise the US government who feared pressure on the dollar, or provoke speculative runs on the pound. As a result, his administration relied on painful deflationary packages, loan requests from the IMF, and price controls between 1964 and 1967 until devaluation became unavoidable.
What was the Department of Economic Affairs and why did it fail?
The Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) was established in 1964 under George Brown to devise long-term economic planning and encourage industrial investment, bypassing traditional Treasury austerity. It produced the ambitious National Plan in 1965 targeting 25% economic growth by 1970. However, it failed because it lacked spending power, suffered from bitter personal rivalry between Brown and Chancellor James Callaghan, and was subordinated to the Treasury's imperative to defend the pound through deflationary measures.
Why did 'In Place of Strife' cause such a crisis for the Labour Party in 1969?
Barbara Castle's white paper proposed state legal intervention into industrial relations, including strike ballots and enforced cooling-off periods, to curb damaging wildcat strikes. This provoked intense fury from trade unions, who provided the majority of Labour's funding, and led to a major Cabinet rebellion led by Home Secretary James Callaghan. Faced with a revolt by over 50 backbench Labour MPs, Wilson was forced to drop the bill in June 1969 in exchange for a toothless 'solemn and binding undertaking' from the TUC, severely damaging his authority.
Did Harold Wilson really create the 'permissive society'?
Wilson's government did not actively initiate the permissive society, but it provided the legislative framework that enabled it. Most major social reforms—such as legalising male homosexual acts, reforming divorce, and legalising abortion—were introduced by backbench MPs via Private Members' Bills. However, Wilson appointed Roy Jenkins as Home Secretary, who ensured government parliamentary time was provided to pass these bills, while Wilson himself remained personally cautious and socially conventional.
Why did Labour lose the 1970 General Election to Edward Heath's Conservatives?
Despite opinion polls pointing to a comfortable Labour victory in the weeks leading up to the election, Labour suffered a shock defeat due to working-class disillusionment over trade union disputes and wage freezes. The humiliation of the 1967 devaluation and the public defeat over 'In Place of Strife' alienated key Labour voters, leading to low turnout. Edward Heath ran an effective campaign warning of persistent inflation, capitalising on poor economic figures released just days before voting.