General information processing model, to include: — AQA A-Level Physical Education

The general information processing model is a fundamental concept in skill acquisition, explaining how performers process information to make decisions and produce movements. It is central to understanding how skills are learned and executed in physical education and sports performance.

This topic is essential for analysing performance, coaching, and improving decision-making under pressure. It underpins many other areas of A-Level Physical Education, including memory, feedback, and motor programmes, and is frequently examined in both short-answer and extended-response questions.

• →The model consists of input, decision making (stimulus identification, response selection, response programming), output, and feedback.
• →Input is the detection of stimuli through the senses (exteroceptors and interoceptors).
• →Decision making involves three sequential stages: identifying the stimulus, selecting a response, and programming the movement.
• →Output is the execution of the motor programme, resulting in observable movement.
• →Feedback can be intrinsic or extrinsic, and concurrent or terminal, and is used to refine future performance.

• Input is the first stage of the general information processing model.
• Input is information received by the performer from the environment.
• Input is gathered through the senses, including vision, audition, touch, proprioception and balance.
• Input can be external, such as a ball or an opponent, or internal, such as muscle position.
• Input provides the raw data that is later interpreted during perception and decision making.
• Effective input depends on attention and the sensitivity of the relevant sensory receptors.
• Senses are the systems that detect information from the environment and the body.
• Senses provide the raw data for the input stage of the information processing model.
• Key senses include vision, audition, touch, proprioception, balance and kinaesthesis.
• Vision detects light, colour and movement; audition detects sound; touch detects pressure and temperature.
• Proprioception detects body and limb position; balance detects head orientation; kinaesthesis detects movement and effort.
• Different sports rely on different senses; for example, a footballer uses vision and proprioception.
• Receptors detect a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse, forming the input stage of the general information processing model.
• Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the central nervous system for interpretation and decision-making.
• Different receptors are specialised for different stimuli, such as muscle spindles for stretch and skin receptors for touch, pressure and temperature.
• Receptor information is integrated with proprioceptive feedback so the CNS can select and execute an appropriate motor response.
• Accurate receptor function underpins skilled movement; impaired or delayed detection reduces the quality and timing of the response.
• Proprioception is the sense of position, movement and orientation of body parts.
• It arises from receptors in muscles, tendons and joints, such as muscle spindles and joint receptors.
• Proprioceptive information travels to the central nervous system and provides feedback within the general information processing model.
• This feedback allows the performer to monitor, adjust and correct movement without relying solely on vision.
• Proprioception supports balance, coordination, timing and technique refinement in skilled performance.
• Perception is the interpretation of sensory information, giving detected stimuli meaning.
• It follows the input stage and precedes decision making in the general information processing model.
• Perception depends on the senses, attention and prior experience or stored memory.
• Selective attention allows a performer to focus on relevant cues and ignore irrelevant ones.
• Improved perception develops through practice, exposure to game situations and cue recognition.
• A sporting example: reading a server's toss and racket path to perceive an attacking serve.
• DCR stands for Detection, Comparison, and Recognition.
• It is a perceptual process within the general information processing model.
• Detection involves picking up relevant sensory information or cues from the environment.
• Comparison involves matching the detected information with past experiences stored in long-term memory.
• Recognition is the identification of the stimulus, allowing the performer to understand what is happening.
• A sporting example: detecting a ball's flight path, comparing it to previous catches, and recognising it as a fast, dipping throw.
• Selective attention filters sensory input so only relevant cues are processed further.
• It occurs at the input stage of the general information processing model.
• It prevents information overload of the limited-capacity central processing system.
• Relevant cues are prioritised while irrelevant stimuli are ignored or blocked out.
• Improved selective attention can speed up and improve the quality of decision making.
• It can be developed through realistic practice and cue-recognition drills.
• Decision making is the central processing stage of the general information processing model.
• It involves interpreting attended information and comparing it with stored memories.
• The performer selects the most appropriate response or motor programme.
• Decision making depends on the quality of information passed from selective attention.
• It can be improved through practice, game-related experience and feedback.
• Effective decision making leads to more appropriate and successful responses.
• STM has limited capacity and limited duration, whereas LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and long duration.
• Information enters STM from sensory input and can be maintained by rehearsal.
• Rehearsal and encoding transfer information from STM into LTM.
• Retrieval brings stored information from LTM back into STM for use in performance.
• In physical activity, repeated practice moves a skill from conscious STM control towards automatic LTM storage.
• The working memory model was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch.
• The central executive controls attention and coordinates the slave systems.
• The phonological loop processes verbal and acoustic information.
• The visuospatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information.
• The episodic buffer integrates information across components and links it to long-term memory.
• The model explains simultaneous temporary storage and manipulation of information during tasks.
• The central executive is a limited-capacity attentional controller that allocates resources and coordinates the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad.
• The phonological loop holds verbal-acoustic information briefly and relies on rehearsal to refresh decaying traces.
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad holds visual and spatial information, such as mental images and locations.
• The episodic buffer integrates information from the loop, sketchpad and long-term memory into a multi-modal episode.
• Each component has limited capacity and duration, and dual-task interference occurs when two tasks use the same component.
• Output is the observable response produced after sensing, attention, encoding, storage, retrieval and decision-making.
• Output can be a motor action, such as a badminton serve, or a verbal or written response.
• Output provides intrinsic feedback from the movement itself and extrinsic feedback from an external source such as a coach.
• Feedback from output can re-enter the system as new input, allowing error correction and learning.
• Output is both the end of one processing cycle and the start of the next.
• Feedback is information received by the performer about the execution or outcome of a movement.
• Intrinsic feedback arises from the performer's own senses and proprioception during or after the action.
• Extrinsic feedback comes from an external source such as a coach, teacher, teammate or video replay.
• Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of the skill, while terminal feedback is received after it.
• Knowledge of results concerns the outcome of the action, such as whether a shot scored.
• Knowledge of performance concerns the quality or technique of the movement itself, such as body position.

• 💡Link input to a specific sporting example, such as a tennis player seeing the ball and feeling the racket grip.
• 💡Use correct terminology: state that input is detected by sensory receptors and transmitted to the central nervous system.
• 💡When answering multiple-choice questions, eliminate options that describe later stages such as decision making or output.
• 💡Name the specific sense and the type of information it detects when giving examples.
• 💡Relate senses to a sporting action, such as a badminton player using vision to track the shuttle and proprioception to control the racket.
• 💡In multiple-choice questions, check whether the option describes a sense or a later processing stage.
• 💡Link each receptor to its specific stimulus and to the stage of the information processing model it serves.
• 💡Use a sporting example, such as visual receptors tracking a ball, to show how input leads to a selected response.
• 💡Check the direction of the pathway: stimulus, receptor, sensory neurone, CNS, motor neurone, effector.
• 💡Avoid vague wording such as 'the body senses'; name the receptor type and the stimulus it detects.
• 💡Define proprioception precisely as the sense of body position and movement before giving an example.
• 💡Use a skill where vision is restricted, such as a handstand or a rugby pass under pressure, to show its value.
• 💡Link proprioceptive feedback to the feedback and correction stages of the information processing model.
• 💡Name the receptor sources, such as muscle spindles and joint receptors, rather than saying 'the body just knows'.
• 💡Link perception explicitly to the model by naming the stage before it (input) and the stage after it (decision making).
• 💡Use a named sporting example and state what the performer perceives, not just that they see something.
• 💡When asked to improve perception, refer to practice, selective attention and cue recognition rather than only fitness training.
• 💡Clearly state what each letter of DCR stands for: Detection, Comparison, Recognition.
• 💡Use a specific sporting example to illustrate each of the three stages in sequence.
• 💡Emphasise that DCR is the perceptual part of information processing that precedes decision making.
• 💡Link selective attention explicitly to the input stage of the model so the examiner sees correct placement.
• 💡Use a named sporting example to show which cues are attended to and which are ignored.
• 💡Explain the consequence of selective attention for processing capacity, such as avoiding overload and speeding up response.
• 💡Distinguish selective attention from decision making in one clear sentence to avoid confusion in multiple-choice options.
• 💡State clearly that decision making occurs in the central processing stage of the model.
• 💡Use a specific sporting scenario to show the options considered and the response selected.
• 💡Explain the role of memory and past experience in choosing the response.
• 💡Link improved decision making to practice and feedback to show understanding of how it develops.
• 💡Read the question carefully to identify whether it asks about capacity, duration, transfer or retrieval before choosing an option.
• 💡Eliminate options that describe LTM as limited or STM as permanent, because these reverse the key features.
• 💡Link each option to a sporting example, such as a tennis serve becoming automatic after many repetitions, to check it makes sense.
• 💡Match each component to its function before selecting an option, especially central executive versus slave systems.
• 💡Reject options that give a slave system a function belonging to another component.
• 💡Use a sporting scenario to test each option, such as remembering a verbal cue while tracking opponents.
• 💡Match each component to its function and capacity limit before choosing an option.
• 💡Use dual-task interference to distinguish components: two verbal tasks compete for the phonological loop, while a verbal and a spatial task can run together.
• 💡Check whether an option describes storage or control; the central executive controls rather than stores.
• 💡Trace the sequence input, decision-making, output, feedback before selecting an option.
• 💡Check whether an option describes a response produced after processing rather than information detected by the senses.
• 💡Use a concrete example such as a badminton serve to test whether an option is output.
• 💡Underline the source of the feedback in the question stem: if it is the performer's own senses, choose intrinsic; if it is another person or device, choose extrinsic.
• 💡Check the timing words: during the action points to concurrent feedback, after the action points to terminal feedback.
• 💡For knowledge of results versus knowledge of performance, ask whether the statement describes the outcome or the technique, then select accordingly.
• 💡Always use sporting examples to illustrate each stage of the model; this demonstrates application and secures application marks.
• 💡Clearly distinguish between the three components of decision making and use correct terminology such as 'stimulus identification', 'response selection', and 'response programming'.
• 💡When discussing feedback, specify the type (intrinsic/extrinsic, concurrent/terminal) and explain its role in improving performance, not just that it exists.

• Confusing input with perception: input is the raw sensory data, while perception is the interpretation of that data.
• Thinking input only comes from external sources: internal sources such as proprioception also provide input.
• Believing input is the same as decision making: decision making occurs after input has been processed.
• Assuming input is always accurate: it can be limited by attention, sensory acuity or environmental conditions.
• Confusing senses with perception: senses detect stimuli, while perception interprets them.
• Thinking only vision and hearing are important in sport: proprioception, balance and kinaesthesis are also crucial.
• Believing senses work in isolation: they often work together to provide comprehensive input.
• Assuming all senses are equally important in every sport: the dominant senses vary by activity.
• Thinking receptors produce movement: receptors only detect stimuli and send impulses; the effector muscles produce the movement.
• Confusing receptors with effectors: receptors are at the input end of the model, whereas effectors act at the output end.
• Assuming one receptor detects all stimuli: receptors are specialised, so muscle spindles detect stretch while skin receptors detect touch and temperature.
• Believing the brain detects the stimulus directly: detection happens at the receptor, and the impulse is then transmitted to the CNS.
• Treating proprioception as the same as balance: balance also depends on vestibular and visual information, while proprioception concerns body position and movement.
• Thinking proprioception only matters in static positions: it also reports movement and is vital during dynamic skills.
• Assuming proprioception replaces vision: it complements visual information and is especially useful when vision is limited.
• Believing proprioception is conscious awareness of every joint angle: much of it operates below conscious attention to guide automatic movement.
• Confusing perception with detection: detection is the sense organs receiving a stimulus, whereas perception is the brain interpreting that stimulus and giving it meaning.
• Treating perception as identical to decision making: perception interprets the stimulus, while decision making selects the response.
• Assuming perception is purely physical: it also relies on attention, memory and experience, so two performers can perceive the same stimulus differently.
• Believing perception cannot be trained: repeated practice and cue exposure improve a performer's ability to read relevant information.
• Defining DCR incorrectly: confusing it with Decision making, Response, and Feedback, whereas it actually stands for Detection, Comparison, and Recognition.
• Placing DCR at the wrong stage of information processing: DCR is part of perception (stimulus identification), which happens before decision making and response execution.
• Failing to link comparison to memory: comparison specifically involves matching incoming stimuli with past experiences stored in long-term memory.
• Thinking selective attention means taking in all available information: it actually filters out irrelevant stimuli so only relevant cues are attended to.
• Confusing selective attention with decision making: selective attention operates at the input stage, whereas decision making occurs in the central processing stage.
• Believing selective attention is fixed and cannot improve: it can be trained through practice in distracting, game-realistic conditions.
• Assuming selective attention only matters in individual sports: it is equally important in team games where many cues compete for attention.
• Placing decision making at the input stage: it belongs to the central processing stage, after selective attention has filtered the input.
• Confusing decision making with the output stage: the output is the actual movement executed, not the choice of response.
• Believing decision making relies only on the current situation: stored memories and past experiences are also retrieved and compared.
• Assuming decision making cannot be improved: practice, game experience and feedback develop faster and more accurate decisions.
• Misunderstanding: STM and LTM are the same store with different names. Correction: they are separate stores with different capacity and duration.
• Misunderstanding: information passes directly from the environment into LTM. Correction: sensory input first enters STM, and rehearsal or encoding is needed for transfer to LTM.
• Misunderstanding: LTM is only for facts and never for movement skills. Correction: LTM stores motor programmes and procedural skills as well as declarative knowledge.
• Misunderstanding: rehearsal is only repeating words silently. Correction: rehearsal can be physical practice or mental rehearsal that strengthens the memory trace.
• Misunderstanding: the central executive stores information itself. Correction: it controls attention and coordinates the slave systems rather than acting as a store.
• Misunderstanding: the phonological loop handles visual information. Correction: it handles verbal and acoustic information, while the visuospatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial information.
• Misunderstanding: the episodic buffer is the same as long-term memory. Correction: it is a temporary store that integrates information and links it to long-term memory.
• Misunderstanding: working memory is the same as short-term memory. Correction: working memory includes active manipulation and coordination, not just passive storage.
• Treating working memory as one single short-term store; correction: it is a multi-component system with separate limited-capacity stores.
• Assuming the central executive stores information; correction: it is an attentional controller that allocates resources and coordinates the other components.
• Believing the phonological loop holds visual images; correction: it holds verbal-acoustic information, while the visuo-spatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial information.
• Ignoring the episodic buffer; correction: it integrates information from the loop, sketchpad and long-term memory into a multi-modal episode.
• Confusing output with input; correction: input is information detected by the senses, while output is the response produced after processing.
• Thinking output is only a motor action; correction: it can also be a verbal or written response.
• Believing feedback is separate from output; correction: output generates intrinsic and extrinsic feedback that can re-enter the system as new input.
• Confusing intrinsic feedback with extrinsic feedback: intrinsic comes from the performer's own senses, whereas extrinsic comes from an outside source such as a coach.
• Treating all feedback as terminal: concurrent feedback occurs during the action, so a coach shouting mid-swing is concurrent, not terminal.
• Mixing up knowledge of results with knowledge of performance: results describe the outcome, while performance describes how the movement was executed.
• Assuming feedback must be verbal: extrinsic feedback can be visual, such as a video replay, or kinaesthetic, such as a coach guiding a limb.
• Students often think the model is linear and ends at output; in fact, feedback loops back to earlier stages to inform future decisions and actions.
• Many believe decision making is a single step; it actually comprises three distinct sub-processes: stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming.
• Some confuse input with perception; input is the raw sensory data, while perception involves interpretation, which occurs during stimulus identification.

1. 1Day 1-2: Learn the definitions and sequence of each stage of the model, creating a flowchart with sporting examples.
2. 2Day 3-4: Focus on decision making sub-components; practice applying them to different sports and create flashcards for each term.
3. 3Day 5-6: Study feedback types and their role; find real-life examples from elite sport and explain how feedback improves performance.
4. 4Day 7-8: Complete past paper questions on the topic, marking your answers against the mark scheme and noting key terms.
5. 5Day 9-10: Review weak areas, create mind maps linking this model to other topics like memory and motor programmes, and test yourself with active recall.

• 📋Short-answer questions (2-4 marks) asking students to name and describe stages of the model or define components of decision making.
• 📋Application questions (4-6 marks) requiring students to apply the model to a specific sporting scenario, often with a diagram or description.
• 📋Extended-response questions (8-10 marks) evaluating the importance of information processing in skill acquisition or comparing models.
• 📋Data analysis questions where students interpret a diagram of the model and explain the flow of information.