Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills — AQA A-Level Physical Education
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- Characteristics of skill.
Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills exam tips
Quick Revision Summary (Key Takeaway)
A skill is a learned ability to bring about a predetermined result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy or time. Skills are classified along continua (open-closed, gross-fine, discrete-serial-continuous, self-paced-externally paced, high-low organisation) and can transfer positively, negatively, or be zeroed between sporting activities.
Topic Overview
This topic explores how skills are defined, classified, and transferred between sporting contexts. You will learn to place skills on continua such as open-closed, gross-fine, discrete-serial-continuous, self-paced-externally paced, and high-low organisation. Understanding these classifications helps explain why some skills are easier to learn and perform in different environments.
The concept of transfer of skills is crucial for effective coaching and skill acquisition. It examines how learning one skill can positively or negatively affect the learning of another, and how teachers can structure practice to maximise positive transfer. This topic underpins later work on skill acquisition, including practice types, feedback, and information processing.
Key Concepts
- →A skill is a learned ability to bring about a predetermined result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy or time.
- →Skills are classified along continua: open-closed, gross-fine, discrete-serial-continuous, self-paced-externally paced, and high-low organisation.
- →Open skills are performed in unpredictable environments and are externally paced; closed skills are performed in predictable environments and are self-paced.
- →Transfer of skills can be positive (aids learning), negative (hinders learning), or zero (no effect), and can be proactive or retroactive.
- →Understanding continua and transfer helps coaches design effective practice and avoid negative transfer.
Examiner Tips
- 💡When classifying a skill, always justify your choice by referring to the specific characteristics of the environment and the performer's control. Use the continua as a spectrum, not as absolute categories.
- 💡For transfer questions, name the type of transfer, give a precise sporting example, and explain the cause (similarity or conflict in movement patterns or environmental demands).
- 💡Use correct terminology consistently: 'open', 'closed', 'gross', 'fine', 'discrete', 'serial', 'continuous', 'self-paced', 'externally paced', 'positive transfer', 'negative transfer', 'zero transfer'.
Common Mistakes
- Students often think all open skills are gross and all closed skills are fine. In reality, a skill can be open and fine, such as a snooker shot in a changing environment, or closed and gross, such as a gymnastics vault.
- Many students believe transfer only occurs between very similar sports. However, transfer can occur between any skills if there are similar movement patterns or cognitive demands, and negative transfer is common when techniques conflict.
- Students frequently confuse 'self-paced' with 'closed' and 'externally paced' with 'open'. While they often overlap, a skill can be self-paced but open, such as a basketball dribble where the performer controls the pace but the environment is unpredictable.
Revision Plan
- 1Day 1-2: Learn the definitions of skill and ability, and the characteristics of skilled performance. Create flashcards for each continua with sporting examples.
- 2Day 3-4: Practice classifying a variety of skills from different sports onto each continuum. Use past paper questions to test your ability to justify classifications.
- 3Day 5-6: Study the different types of transfer (positive, negative, zero, proactive, retroactive) and find real-life sporting examples for each.
- 4Day 7-8: Complete exam-style questions on transfer, focusing on explaining causes and suggesting strategies to promote positive transfer.
- 5Day 9-10: Review all content, test yourself with active recall, and complete a timed past paper question on this topic.
Exam Question Types
- 📋Multiple choice questions asking you to identify the correct classification of a skill or the type of transfer in a given scenario.
- 📋Short answer questions (2-4 marks) requiring definitions and sporting examples of skill continua or transfer.
- 📋Extended answer questions (6-8 marks) asking you to explain how transfer of skills can affect performance and how a coach can optimise learning.
- 📋Data analysis questions where you interpret a graph or table showing skill classification or transfer effects and explain the implications for practice.
Command Word Expectations (AQA)
Describe
Give a detailed account of the characteristics or features of a skill or transfer type. No explanation of why is required, but accurate terminology and examples should be included.
Explain
Provide reasons or causes for how a skill is classified or how transfer occurs. You must link cause and effect, using appropriate terminology and sporting examples.
Evaluate
Make a judgement about the relative importance or effectiveness of a concept, such as the impact of negative transfer on performance. You must consider both sides and reach a justified conclusion.
How Students Lose Marks (Examiner Pitfalls)
Pitfall: Students confuse the terms 'open' and 'closed' skills, or fail to justify their classification with reference to the environment and the performer's control.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):A closed skill is one where the environment changes, like a football pass. An open skill is done in a fixed environment, like a gymnastics routine.
Example improved answer:An open skill is performed in an unpredictable, changing environment where the performer must adapt to external factors, for example a pass in football where opponents and teammates are moving. A closed skill is performed in a predictable, stable environment where the performer controls the timing and execution, for example a free throw in basketball or a gymnastics vault.
Examiner Tip: Always link the classification to the specific environmental demands and who controls the pace. Use the phrase 'the environment is unpredictable and the performer must adapt' for open skills, and 'the environment is predictable and the performer controls the timing' for closed skills.
Pitfall: Students describe transfer of skills without correctly identifying the type (positive, negative, zero) or explaining the cause of the transfer.
❌ Weak Answer (Loses Marks):Transfer is when you use a skill from one sport in another. For example, a tennis serve helps a badminton serve. This is positive transfer.
Example improved answer:Positive transfer occurs when a previously learned skill aids the learning or performance of a new skill in a different context. For example, the overarm throwing action in cricket fielding positively transfers to the overarm throw in baseball, because the movement pattern and timing are similar. Negative transfer occurs when a previously learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill, such as a tennis player using a wristy forehand in squash, where the technique required is different and the old habit interferes.
Examiner Tip: Name the type of transfer, give a specific sporting example, and explain the similarity or difference in the movement patterns or environmental demands. Avoid vague examples; be precise about the skill and the context.
Step-by-Step Worked Solutions
Question: Using examples from sport, explain the difference between a discrete skill and a continuous skill. (4 marks)
- 1.Step 1: Define a discrete skill - a skill with a clear beginning and end, performed as a single unit.
- 2.Step 2: Provide a sporting example - a penalty flick in hockey or a tennis serve.
- 3.Step 3: Define a continuous skill - a skill with no clear beginning or end, repeated in a cyclical pattern.
- 4.Step 4: Provide a sporting example - running in a marathon or swimming freestyle.
Final Answer: A discrete skill has a clear start and finish and is performed once, such as a tennis serve. A continuous skill has no distinct beginning or end and is repeated, such as running or swimming. Discrete skills are often closed and self-paced, while continuous skills are often open and externally paced.
Question: A coach is teaching a novice to perform a tennis serve. Explain how the concepts of positive transfer and negative transfer could affect the learning of this skill. (6 marks)
- 1.Step 1: Define positive transfer - when a previously learned skill aids the learning of a new skill.
- 2.Step 2: Give an example relevant to the tennis serve - a badminton overhead clear or a volleyball spike may positively transfer because of similar overarm throwing action and timing.
- 3.Step 3: Define negative transfer - when a previously learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill.
- 4.Step 4: Give an example relevant to the tennis serve - a badminton player may use a wristy flick on the serve, which is illegal in tennis and reduces power and accuracy.
- 5.Step 5: Explain how the coach can maximise positive transfer and minimise negative transfer - use similar practices, highlight similarities, and correct bad habits early.
Final Answer: Positive transfer can aid the tennis serve if the learner has experience of similar overarm actions from badminton or volleyball, as the movement patterns and timing are similar. Negative transfer can hinder learning if the learner has developed a wristy action from badminton, which is ineffective in tennis. The coach should emphasise the similarities in the throwing action and correct any interfering habits to promote positive transfer.
Active Recall Memory Test
Define an open skill and give a sporting example.
Key Fact: An open skill is performed in an unpredictable, changing environment where the performer must adapt to external factors. Example: a pass in football or a return in tennis.
What is negative transfer? Provide an example.
Key Fact: Negative transfer occurs when a previously learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill. Example: a tennis player using a wristy forehand in squash, which is ineffective.
Explain the difference between a discrete and a serial skill.
Key Fact: A discrete skill has a clear beginning and end and is performed as a single unit (e.g., a penalty flick). A serial skill is a series of discrete skills linked together in a sequence (e.g., a gymnastics floor routine).
What is the difference between self-paced and externally paced skills?
Key Fact: Self-paced skills are initiated and controlled by the performer (e.g., a golf swing). Externally paced skills are controlled by external factors such as the opponent or the environment (e.g., returning a serve in tennis).
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between a skill and an ability in A-Level PE?
A skill is a learned ability to bring about a predetermined result with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of energy or time. An ability is an innate, stable trait that underpins skilled performance, such as coordination or reaction time. Skills are developed through practice, while abilities are largely genetically determined and form the foundation for skill learning.
How do I remember the skill continua for my AQA A-Level PE exam?
Use the mnemonic 'Open Gross Discrete Self High' to remember the five continua: Open-Closed, Gross-Fine, Discrete-Serial-Continuous, Self-paced-Externally paced, and High-Low organisation. For each continuum, think of a sporting example at each end and practice placing skills along the spectrum. Regular retrieval practice with flashcards will help cement the classifications.
Can a skill be both open and closed?
Yes, skills exist on a continuum rather than as absolute categories. A skill can be placed anywhere along the open-closed continuum depending on the specific situation. For example, a basketball pass in a game is open because the environment is unpredictable, but a basketball free throw is closed because the environment is stable. The same skill can shift along the continuum depending on the context.
What is zero transfer in skill acquisition?
Zero transfer occurs when a previously learned skill has no effect on the learning or performance of a new skill. This often happens when the two skills are completely unrelated in terms of movement patterns or cognitive demands. For example, learning to swim is unlikely to affect learning to play chess, as there is no overlap in the skills required.
How can a coach promote positive transfer and reduce negative transfer?
A coach can promote positive transfer by highlighting the similarities between the old and new skills, using similar practice drills, and providing feedback on the common elements. To reduce negative transfer, the coach should identify conflicting techniques early, correct bad habits, and use practices that closely resemble the new skill. Emphasising the differences in technique and providing clear demonstrations can also help.
What are the five skill continua in AQA A-Level PE?
The five skill continua are: open-closed (based on environmental predictability), gross-fine (based on muscle involvement and precision), discrete-serial-continuous (based on the nature of the movement), self-paced-externally paced (based on who controls the timing), and high-low organisation (based on the complexity of the skill). Each continuum helps classify skills for effective teaching and practice.